From Plane to Three-Dimensional: The Spatial Narrative of Landscapes in Carving Art1

Do plano ao tridimensional: a narrativa espacial de paisagens na arte de entalhar

Abstract:

This paper explores how bamboo stationery carving reshapes traditional Chinese painting and reflects spatial concepts in Chinese philosophy. As a three-dimensional reinterpretation of two-dimensional landscape paintings, bamboo carving not only preserves the aesthetic essence of traditional works, but also reconstructs spatial aesthetic principles, such as the interplay of ‘emptiness and solidity’ through carving. By extending the flat composition of landscape paintings into three-dimensional space, bamboo carving techniques create richly layered and deeply evocative narratives on the limited surface of bamboo. These works embody the philosophical concept of ‘unity between heaven and humanity’ (tian ren he yi) and achieve a harmonious integration of material form, visual expression and cultural symbolism. This paper explores how bamboo carving inherits the spatial concepts of traditional Chinese painting while innovating new methods of spatial representation in sculpture. It contends that bamboo carving offers a philosophical reimagining of spatial narrative, bridging the material and the metaphysical, and providing new insight into the dynamic relationship between form, void and meaning in traditional Chinese art.

Keywords:
Carving; Bamboo; Painting; Landscape; Narrative; Culture; Space; Philosophy

Resumo:

Este artigo explora como o entalhe em papel de carta de bambu remodela a pintura tradicional chinesa e reflete conceitos espaciais da filosofia chinesa. Enquanto uma reinterpretação tridimensional de pinturas de paisagens bidimensionais, o entalhe em bambu não apenas preserva a essência estética das obras tradicionais, mas também reconstrói princípios estéticos espaciais, como a interação de “vazio e solidez”, por meio do entalhe. Ao estender a composição plana das pinturas de paisagens para o espaço tridimensional, as técnicas de entalhe em bambu criam narrativas ricas em camadas e profundamente evocativas na superfície limitada do bambu. Essas obras incorporam o conceito filosófico de “unidade entre o céu e a humanidade” (tian ren he yi) e alcançam uma integração harmoniosa de forma material, expressão visual e simbolismo cultural. Este texto mostra de que maneira o entalhe em bambu herda os conceitos espaciais da pintura tradicional chinesa e, ao mesmo tempo, inova novos métodos de representação espacial na escultura. Ele argumenta que o entalhe em bambu estabelece um sistema narrativo distinto, solidificando seu significado cultural e servindo como um marco importante na profissionalização do artesanato tradicional chinês.

Palavras-chave:
Escultura; Bambu; Pintura; Paisagem; Narrativa; Cultura; Espaço; Filosofia

INTRODUCTION

Traditional Chinese art emphasizes the philosophical concepts of harmony between heaven and humanity and the interplay of emptiness and solidity (xu shi xiang sheng), highlighting the harmonious unity between humans and nature, the fluidity and transformation of spatial layers. Bamboo carving, as an art form, extends the spatial narratives of landscape painting into three-dimensional sculpture, achieving a transition from plane to three-dimensional expression. This process represents not only an innovation in craftsmanship, but also a tangible embodiment of traditional Chinese philosophical thought. Traditional Chinese art emphasizes an integrated aesthetic that combines poetry, calligraphy, painting and seal carving with various artistic forms interweaving and inspiring one another to create unique modes of expression (Huber; Zhao, 2011). A similar relationship of mutual influence and complementarity exists between crafts and painting. It was, however, more prominent after the mid-Ming period, as the growing aesthetics of the literati’s objects progressed (Pang, 2007). At the same time, the spatial expressiveness of craftsmanship became more and more sophisticated. Bamboo carving, as a significant decorative art for scholars’ desk accessories, shares an inherent connection with painting and calligraphy. Of these, bamboo brush holders that became very popular during the Ming dynasty often used highly complex three-dimensional carving to produce dynamic images of mountainous landscapes that achieved as much expressiveness as contemporary landscape painting (Clarke, 2019). The close parallel indicates that it is necessary to discuss the spatial positioning of ancient bamboo brush holders and landscape paintings to extend the conceptions of traditional crafters’ interaction with painting, and also to draw a complete perspective on Chinese Han culture and arts.

It is a testament to the practical application of the concept of ‘harmony between heaven and humanity’ as it pertains to the arts and crafts that the development of the bamboo carving techniques was the result. Unlike landscape painting, which uses brushstrokes and color to depict scenes on paper, bamboo carving employs blades instead of brushes and bamboo instead of paper, using various carving techniques to design and create patterns on the surface or root of bamboo (Da-Wei, 2012). Originating in China’s Jiangnan region, bamboo carving emerged as a distinct art form during the mid-Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE) (Watson; Ho, 2007). While the craft of bamboo carving can be traced back to the Han dynasty, it underwent significant developments during the Southern and Northern dynasties, as well as the Sui, Tang and Five dynasties periods (Sullivan, 2008). However, bamboo carving, in its true artistic form, only began to take shape after the Song dynasty (Williams, 2012). By the Ming and Qing dynasties, the popularity of the Four Treasures of the Study (writing brush, ink stick, ink stone and paper) provided a wide range of applications for bamboo carving (Zhang, 2004). Among these bamboo-carved desk objects, brush holders stood out for their combination of practicality and visual appeal, reflecting the literati’s refined taste and moral ideals (Pang, 2007).

The Ming and Qing (1506-1912) dynasties marked the peak of bamboo carving in China. Bamboo brush holders, with their distinctive three-dimensional form and exquisite craftsmanship, were highly favored by literati and scholars (Stanley-Baker, 1992). Among these, the integration of landscape themes into bamboo carving stands out as particularly noteworthy. Landscape painting, as a representative genre of the literati’s art, embodies profound cultural connotations and philosophical significance (Elkins, 2010). How bamboo carvers successfully incorporated the poetic essence of landscapes into the three-dimensional form of brush holders posed not only a technical challenge, but also reflected the transformative evolution of traditional artistic concepts (Goldberg, 2004). This phenomenon has drawn scholarly attention to the relationship between bamboo brush holders and landscape painting (Van Briessen, 2011). Existing studies primarily focus on the form of the brush holder, its decorative motifs, and its connections to the literati’s painting and calligraphy. However, the exploration of the spatial narrative features of landscape-themed bamboo carvings, as well as their visual communication mechanisms, remains insufficiently addressed in current research.

Bamboo carving is not merely a simple imitation of technique, but rather a creative transformation of traditional painting philosophy within three-dimensional space. Considerable scholarly work has been conducted on bamboo carving from the Ming and Qing dynasties (Liu, 2016). Sun Ming and Huang Boqian have systematically traced the historical development of bamboo carving art (Allan, 2015). Michael G. Chang (2007) has undertaken specialized studies on the artistic characteristics and representative works of major bamboo carving schools, such as the Jiading School and the Four Schools of Fengmen. In terms of comparisons between bamboo carving and painting, Wang Zhenghua explored the relationship between Zhu Ying’s and Zhu Zhifan’s bamboo-carved landscapes, father and son, respectively, who represent a pair of sculptors from the Ming dynasty, and their painting practices (Shih-Hsiang, 1948). Similarly, Pang Hongjun analyzed the literati’s aesthetic embodied in bamboo carver Shen Dazheng’s works from the late Ming and early Qing periods (Hang; Guo, 2006). These studies provide an essential foundation for the arguments presented in this paper. However, previous research has primarily focused on analyzing artistic styles within specific historical periods or schools, with limited attention given to the spatial narrative perspective. Few studies have systematically examined the connections and distinctions between bamboo brush holders and landscape painting in terms of composition, perspective and other spatial narrative techniques.

This study aims to build upon existing research, by focusing on the creation of bamboo brush pots by renowned bamboo carving artists, during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties (1506-1912). It emphasizes the strategies employed in the transition of bamboo carving from two-dimensional to three-dimensional expressions. Using Chinese landscape painting as a point of comparison, the study explores how bamboo brush pots borrow from and innovate upon the spatial composition, perspective techniques and carving methods found in landscape painting. This paper analyzes how bamboo artisans drew on the planarity of landscape painting plans in the bamboo brush pot context to develop a three-dimensional sculptural form out of the inherent properties of bamboo material. Moreover, it argues that bamboo brush pots have acquired, evolved and improved their narrative ingredients from landscape paintings, and their narrative patterns provide important evidence for the special meaning of bamboo carvings in the spatial representation and philosophical expression. In the end, this study also offers a new platform for viewing the relationship between traditional Chinese art and its cross-media transformation.

1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPATIAL REPRESENTATION IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING

1.1 The spatial theory of traditional Chinese painting

Scattered perspective, commonly seen in Chinese landscape painting, takes place in the spatial composition and employs multiple viewpoints, which present variations in height, density, spacing, etc., in the foreground and background at the same time. The expression of this approach is a multidimensional and open spatial effect, which corresponds to the Chinese philosophical concept of ‘the unity of heaven and humanity’ (Wang et al., 2022). Scattered perspective departs from the fixed focal point of Western linear perspective by encouraging a fluidity and openness, using which the viewer may encompass the whole painting from many angles and immerse himself in the scene as a totality.

Regarding perspective techniques in Chinese landscape painting (Jiang; Zhu, 2018), the first technique, ‘Three Distances Method’ (san yuan fa), was first articulated systematically by the Northern Song painter Guo Xi in his treatise Linquan Gaozhi (‘Lofty Ambitions in Forests and Streams’). There are three kinds of spatial perspectives applied in this method: high distance (gao yuan) - the perspective that pictures scenic scenery from above with grandeur and steepness; level distance (ping yuan) - the perspective that shows the plain and great landscape horizontally and step by step to the distance; deep distance (shen yuan) - the bottom perspective which presents that way the seal and remote environment of mountain river. Unlike single-point perspective in the tradition of the West, the ‘Three Distances Method’ merges different viewing points, thereby enriching it in terms of space richness and expressiveness. The subjectivity of intention and imagism, provided by this technique, expresses the Chinese landscape painting doctrine of the union of inner perception with external reality in a harmonious manner. Its goal is not merely to depict physical likeness, but to achieve a balance between form and spirit, creating a painterly aesthetic infused with poetic sentiment and philosophical depth (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 -
Bamboo Brush Holder with Landscapes and Pavilions in Incised Green Technique

1.2 The inheritance and transformation of the planar composition of landscape painting in bamboo brush holders

The bamboo brush holder, as a scholar’s object that combines functionality and aesthetic value, exhibits unique characteristics in its spatial narration. Functionally, it must not only fulfill practical requirements for holding and organizing brushes, but also provide viewers with an engaging visual experience. As a result, its narrative imagery must adapt to the cylindrical surface of the bamboo, creating a continuous and cohesive aesthetic effect. It demands that the compositional techniques from the landscape painting be applied by the bamboo carver to the multi-layer and multi-perspective expression. Structurally, bamboo brush holders are different from the landscape painting scrolls. Flat and expansive surfaces of scroll paintings may be used to fully depict the overlap of the mountains and spatial relationships of foreground and background. Bamboo brush holders, on the other hand, due to height and diameter limitations, require the scenes to be simplified and modified based on the physical properties of bamboo. Its cylindrical form requires careful adjustment of scenes to achieve natural spatial layout. The philosophy expressed in the ‘Zhuangzi, Free and Easy Wandering’ (wu dai er you) is that of ‘wandering without dependence’ in temporal and spatial dimensions. This philosophy of creative process aligns with it. This transcends limitation and becomes the ideal of spiritual freedom and free movement.

In addition to directly transplanting the composition of landscape paintings, bamboo carving artists also creatively transformed the planar composition according to the characteristics of the bamboo material. By simulating the transitional effect of ink and wash in landscape paintings through carving techniques, they incorporated bamboo carving craftsmanship into spatial representation. Take Zhou Hao’s Bamboo Carved Brush Holder with Bamboo and Rock as an example. Zhou Hao broke away from the reliance on painting drafts in bamboo carving (Tian, 2017). Instead, he directly wielded the knife like a brush on the bamboo holder, carving the curved bamboo leaves and vigorous bamboo branches, creating the concave-convex texture method (ao tu cun fa) (Fig. 2). This improvisational creative approach broke the conventionality of landscape painting composition, creating a dynamic visual effect on the rounded surface of the bamboo holder. The comparison of the two groups of works demonstrates that bamboo carving art and Chinese landscape painting effectively embody the transition from painting to craftsmanship.

Figure 2 -
2(a): Bamboo Brush Holder with Bamboo and Rock Motif. 2(b): Ink Bamboo Painting

This study finds that bamboo brush holders inherit and adapt compositional strategies from landscape painting, transitioning planar aesthetics into three-dimensional forms (Gong; De Divitiis, 2023).

2 ENRICHING SPATIAL NARRATION THROUGH THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPOSITION IN BAMBOO BRUSH HOLDERS

2.1 Multi-perspective composition and segmented layout

Guo Xi, in The Lofty Message of Forests and Streams, stated: “The method of painting landscapes should allow the viewer to feel as if they are wandering within it” (Gu, 2016, p. 23). The spatial composition of bamboo brush pots embodies this concept, serving as a three-dimensional interpretation and continuation of his vision.

Unlike landscape paintings, which rely on scattered perspective and variations in density to create spatial effects, bamboo carving employs a multi-perspective compositional method for spatial narration. ‘Multi-perspective composition’ refers to the depiction of the same story or scene from multiple angles on a single bamboo carving. This approach breaks free from the constraints of a singular viewpoint, transforming the bamboo brush holder into a 360° panoramic narrative space. Viewers must rotate the brush holder to observe each story segment in sequence. In other words, there is no unified focal point in the carving. Instead, the narrative shifts among multiple perspectives, ultimately coalescing into a complete story in the viewer’s imagination. This approach closely parallels the ‘shifting perspective’ technique in literary narration. The advantage of multi-perspective composition in spatial narration lies in its ability to integrate disparate scenes into a coherent virtual space on the cylindrical surface of the bamboo.

While these scenes might occur in different times and places in reality, they are unified on a closed circular surface of the bamboo, creating spatial continuity. As the viewer’s perspective shifts, they can move freely between different segments of the narrative. This approach reflects the Daoist spatial philosophy of fluidity and wholeness. As stated in the Dao De Jing: “The Dao gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three gives birth to all things”. In the composition of bamboo brush pots, each perspective functions as both an independent scene and an integral part of the overall narrative, blending seamlessly to reveal the nature’s dynamic and perpetual order. This nonlinear spatial narrative aligns with the idea in Zhuangzi: “The Equality of Things that objects have no fixed form, and vision has no fixed focus” (Zong, 2005), suggesting that space is not static, but transforms with shifting perspectives. Compared to the fixed-point linear perspective that dominates Western spatial aesthetics - centered on the singular vanishing point and static viewer - Daoist spatial thought dissolves the hierarchical binary of subject and object, emphasizing instead fluidity, multiplicity and relationality.

The Doctrine of the Mean states: “What is ordained by Heaven is called nature; following this nature is called the Dao” (Wang, 1989, p. 103). In bamboo carving, artisans embrace the natural form of the material, creating infinite spatial imagery within a finite surface. This practice is concrete evidence of the philosophy of ‘harmony between Heaven and humanity’. Bamboo carving may take advantage of this in the sense that the segmented layout is a composition method that skillfully uses the inherent character of bamboo as a material. The dense fibers and high density of texture of bamboo make it a good fit for intricate and detailed carving as well as creating many practically weightless forms. An additional feature of the grain could even be showcased through carving techniques, providing a more aesthetic appeal. By providing these material properties to the bamboo carvers, they have a vast creative space, thus making their works appear more dynamic and lively. It is held by many artists that the players built on the natural characteristics of the bamboo-nodes, roots and surface textures-to break their bamboo surface into as many separate spatial units as can appropriately represent a separate scene or theme.

2.2 Spatial representation in three-dimensional bamboo carving techniques

The techniques of three-dimensional carving skillfully embody the Daoist philosophy from the Dao De Jing: ‘What exists provides utility, but what does not exist makes it useful’. By integrating solid and void forms, the carving creates a dynamic interplay between the tangible and the abstract, simultaneously shaping concrete forms while leaving space for the viewer’s imagination. While the brushwork in Chinese landscape painting emphasizes elements, such as ‘dense (nong), sparse (dan), dry (gan), wet (shi), splashed (po), accumulated (ji) and broken (po)’, the ink-wash layering technique uses nuanced brushstrokes to convey a sense of atmosphere and depth. Similarly, bamboo carving replicates the variation in brushstroke thickness through the use of carving techniques that vary in depth, intensity and precision. These techniques include incised carving (yin ke), high relief (gao fu diao), low relief (di fu diao), openwork carving (tou diao) and round carving (yuan diao) (Rands, 1965) (Fig. 3). Each of these methods represents the pinnacle of Chinese bamboo carving, offering distinct aesthetic and technical characteristics.

Incised carving creates recessed patterns on the bamboo surface, producing subtle effects of light and shadow to enhance depth. High relief raises the carved motifs prominently from the background, creating dramatic three-dimensional effects that make the imagery stand out vividly. One particularly suitable form of low relief is for the depiction of landscapes and intricate patterns. By opening through the bamboo with openwork carving, or using round carving, which is the most technically challenging way, fully three-dimensional works are produced to be appreciated from a 360-degree perspective. The techniques employed in these carvings, related to bamboo, could be used in addition to or in combination with one another to give final and complex artworks to display the artist’s versatility and technical skill. The technique chosen depends on the properties of the bamboo as well as on its intended use and thematic content.

Han metaphysics proposed ‘the understanding of the way of heaven and earth, and the understanding of all things’. ‘The understanding of the principles of heaven and earth’ comprised the contemplation of the nature’s intrinsic order. Under the influence of these metaphysical ideas, bamboo carvers began to explore the internal spatial structure of their subjects, striving to express their inherent essence to the fullest extent. Round carving emphasizes the external form of the object, while openwork carving aims to convey its inner spirit. These two techniques complement each other, collectively creating narrative compositions imbued with a profound sense of spatial depth and vitality.

Figure 3 -
Three-dimensional Bamboo Carving Techniques

2.3 Creating spatial depth through light and shadow

Building on the spatial representation techniques discussed in the previous section, this part shifts the focus from physical form to perceptual experience. In bamboo carving, spatial depth is not solely constructed through technical methods, such as relief, openwork, or incised carving, but also through the dynamic interplay of light and shadow that animates the surface.

From a phenomenological perspective, bamboo carving is not merely a static object in physical space. It creates a dynamic experience through the interplay of light and shadow, engaging in an active dialogue with the viewer (subject). Techniques, such as relief carving, openwork and incised carving, allow light and shadow to constantly shift across the surface of the work. This interplay is not a fixed and objective phenomenon, but depends on the viewer’s position, mode of observation and embodied perceptual experience.

Bamboo carving is about the concept yin and yang in art, where light (yang) and shadow (yin) merge and balance itself and hence, creating a void (yin) and substance (yang) balance. In doing so, they create spatial depth and evoke the distinctive stylistic character of bamboo carving. Within this unity of opposites, one not only perceives the powerful visual expressiveness of work, but also senses a deeper reflection of Chinese philosophy, which emphasizes the mutual dependence and transformation of all things in the natural world. The carved area is illuminated (yang), and the shadowed (yin) areas underline the physical and tonal qualities of the carving by emphasizing the sense of depth provided by the spatial layering. An example of Zhou Li’s ‘Retained Green Landscape Brush Holder’ shows a technique of carving to deeply into the surface of bamboo to produce the sense of three dimensionality by the concave and convex curvature of the bamboo cylinder (Fig. 4a). The richly layered and textured surface that results emerged from the intricate depiction of landscapes, trees, pavilions, gardens and other complex motifs (Tian, 2017). This spatial depth is even more vivid, encapsulated by the interplay of light and shadow on the surface of bamboo.

Zhu Zhizheng has excellently mastered the skill of light and shadow in his works. For example, in his ‘Bamboo Carving of Figures Brush Holder’ (Fig. 4b), the figures and scenery are delicately and exceptionally depicted (Tian, 2017). With different depths of relief and its densities varying in contrast, Zhu creates rich spatial depth, along with a clear sense of foreground and background. In addition to the limited space, Zhu’s brush holder makes use of the openwork carving technique to further add the three-dimensionality of the figure and scenery. In all, his use of high relief to carve the foreground surface, shallow relief to build the background and openwork carving to link the two is particularly striking. Light passing through the carved openings produces gradual transitions of light and shadow, fully utilizing the limited cylindrical space and creating an engaging sense of spatial depth that invites both viewing and interaction.

Zhu He, known as the Father of Jiading Bamboo Carving, was the founder of the Jiading School of bamboo carving. He often employed brush-like techniques in his carvings, skillfully engraving intricate motifs on small bamboo and wooden surfaces. His works are characterized by their simplicity, elegance and classical aesthetic. Although very few of Zhu He’s works have survived. The Nanjing Museum holds his renowned piece: Bamboo Carving of Pines and Cranes Brush Holder (Fig. 4c). This brush holder, carved from a bamboo root, features motifs, such as pine trees, bamboo, cranes and plum blossoms (Tian, 2017). Through fine detail and vivid form, the carvings skillfully use light and shadow to construct spatial depth. As viewers admire the brush holder, the interplay of light and shadow shifts, allowing them to experience the varying density and depth of the scenery, as though immersed in the secluded mountain forests of a scholar’s retreat.

Figure 4 -
a): Incised Green Mountain-and-Water Brush Holder. b): Bamboo Brush Holder with Figurative Carving. c): Bamboo Brush Holder with Pine and Crane Design

The interplay of light and shadow in bamboo carving not only shapes the viewer’s perceptual experience, but also contributes to the dynamic construction of space. In phenomenology, space is not a pre-existing entity, but is constructed through the viewer’s mode of observation. The light and shadow of bamboo carving, through the interdependence of void and substance, transform space into a dynamic experience rather than a fixed and objective structure. Unlike landscape painting, which focuses on evoking an artistic mood through brushstrokes and ink, bamboo carving emphasizes shaping form to convey meaning, using tangible three-dimensional forms to express abstract emotions and ideas. This unique artistic expressiveness allows bamboo carving to exhibit an aesthetic appeal in three-dimensional modeling that is distinctly different from that of landscape painting. Compared to the planar spatial narrative of landscape painting, Han dynasty bamboo carving creates richer and more diverse spatial layers through three-dimensional modeling. As stated in Zhuangzi: Knowledge Ramble North: “It is as though there is reality, yet not; as though there is nothingness, yet not” (Gu, 2016, p. 85). This suggests that reality and emptiness are not opposites, but are deeply intertwined. As a consequence, bamboo carving enables the void and substance to be bound in such a way that the representation of the physical space can be transcended into a spiritual resonance and meaning.

3 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SPATIAL NARRATIVES IN HAN DYNASTY LANDSCAPE PAINTING AND BAMBOO CARVING

Chinese art, however, offers more than merely a spatial representation. Spatial narratives in Chinese art here reflect the older Chinese philosophical idea of space, time and the thing about, rather than in space. The influence of Confucianism, Daoism and the philosophies of the Yijing (Book of Changes) is clearly reflected in the artistic distinctions between Han dynasty landscape painting and bamboo carving. Further, these same differences point to how Chinese art investigates what is possible in terms of spatial representation in both two and three-dimensional forms.

3.1 Grasping spatial depth: metaphysical spatial concepts and artistic expression

Rather than understanding space as an abstract geometric structure, Chinese philosophy views space as constituted by the flow and convergence of qi (vital energy). The Dao De Jing says: ‘There are yin and there is yang, all things do; mix by blending qi into a harmony’. From this point of view, the absolute void that is space is rather a dynamic whole, filled with emptiness, and is filled, fluid and, thus, transformed.

Chinese landscape painting uses scattered perspective, mixing the fine and coarse brushstrokes, the contrast of light and shadow, and the visual effect of ‘void generation of substance, substance generation of void’ or a finite canvas full of infinite meanings and depth. These landscapes do not feature a single geometric perspective in which spatial depth could be perceived; rather, we gain a sense of spatial depth from Xinxiang, a psychological space shaped from the artist’s subjectivity. Zhuangzi: On the ‘Equality of Things’: ‘The space between things, without thickness’, and the idea of indirect expression to bring about the spatial experience of things that exist in-between the physical reality, together articulate a unique understanding of spatial aesthetics. On the other hand, the three-dimensional form can overcome the limit of flat painting by the use of bamboo carving. The most direct and tangible spatial presentation of relief carving and open work carving is made. By bamboo brush pots themselves being cut from bamboo into cylindrical forms, most of which are hollowed out, they inherently have three-dimensional traits that allow spatial depth to be suggested without the use of virtual perspective, but rather through carved depth shifts, changing shadows and hollowed design. By carving bamboo more physically, it becomes more physically intuitive to express spatial expression as it brings bamboo carving into the new narrative of three-dimensional space as opposed to the usual planar space characteristic of traditional Chinese painting.

Approaches to spatial representation reflect the relationship between Dao(道) and Qi (器) in Chinese philosophy. Landscape painting leans more toward Dao, expressing the intangible beauty of space through symbolic and evocative imagery, while bamboo carving aligns more closely with Qi, presenting spatial depth directly through tangible carved structures. However, neither method is merely a depiction of physical space; rather, both embody the unique Chinese philosophical understanding of the concept of space.

3.2 Narrative space of subject-object integration: subjectivity and viewer participation

In traditional Chinese art, the viewer is never a passive observer, but an integral part of the narrative space. Whether in landscape painting or bamboo carving, the creative process emphasizes the dynamic interaction between the subject (the viewer) and the object (the artwork). This concept aligns closely with the idea of ‘change’ (bianyi) in the Yijing (Book of Changes), which suggests that the meaning of anything depends on the viewer’s participation and the shifting perspectives they bring to the experience.

The scattered perspective in landscape painting allows viewers to engage with the artwork from multiple vantage points, ‘roaming freely and expansively’ through the composition. In the interplay of void and substance, they can immerse themselves in the poetic essence of painting. This fluid mode of viewing resonates with Zhuangzi’s concept of xiaoyao you (carefree wandering), where the act of viewing becomes a process of spiritual liberation, enabling one to connect with the nature’s and the cosmos’ essence. Thus, the spatial narrative in landscape painting is not fixed, but emerges dynamically, shaped by the viewer’s shifting gaze. In contrast, the 360° composition of bamboo carving further enhances the viewer’s agency. To fully grasp the narrative conveyed by a carved bamboo brush pot, the viewer must actively rotate the piece and shift among different perspectives. This interactive viewing process transforms bamboo carving from a static artwork into a dynamic and participatory art form. Such an approach aligns with the philosophical concept in The Doctrine of the Mean⁴: ‘To reach vastness while attending to subtlety; to achieve the highest clarity while maintaining balance’. Bamboo carving expands the breadth of spatial narrative while maintaining intricate precision in its details. Through this dynamic viewing experience, the artwork offers a coherent and immersive narrative, allowing the viewer to engage with both its expansive structure and its refined craftsmanship.

It can be said that the narrative space of landscape painting leans more toward a ‘spiritual journey’, while the narrative space of bamboo carving places greater emphasis on ‘physical participation’. The former invites the viewer to mentally immerse themselves within the pictorial realm, while the latter requires physical movement to piece together and experience the unfolding narrative. This differing treatment of the relationship between subject and object reflects the evolving understanding of the ‘viewer’ in artistic creation from the Han dynasty onward and signifies the progression of art from one-sided appreciation to interactive experience.

3.3 The correspondence between bamboo brush pot carvings and the artistic conception of landscape painting: the artistic pursuit of following nature

One of the core principles of traditional Chinese art is Dao Follows Nature (Dao fa ziran), which emphasizes that art should not only depict nature, but also conform to and express its intrinsic spirit. This principle is vividly reflected in the spatial narratives of both landscape painting and bamboo brush pot carvings. Landscape painting highlights the ideals of being ‘walkable, viewable, inhabitable, and traversable’, which go beyond the mere depiction of natural scenery to embody a yearning for an ideal way of life. As stated in Linquan Gaozhi (‘Lofty Ambitions in Forests and Streams’), ‘The method of painting landscapes must make the viewer feel as if they are wandering within it’. This demonstrates that landscape painting is not merely a visual art form, but also a spiritual journey, inviting viewers to experience the Daoist philosophy of unity between heaven and humanity within the artistic conception of painting.

Although bamboo brush pot carvings are three-dimensional, their composition and the creation of artistic conception resonate deeply with landscape painting. Many bamboo brush pots draw directly from the themes of landscape painting, incorporating the nature’s poetic depictions, flowing streams, pine forests and reclusive scholars into their carvings, effectively transforming the two-dimensional landscape painting into a three-dimensional form. In a scholar’s study, a bamboo brush pot serves not only as an everyday writing utensil, but also as a spiritual vessel that embodies the scholar’s yearning for reclusion and harmony with nature. This aligns with the ideal pursuit expressed in the verse, ‘I build my hut in the human world, yet there is no noise of horse and carriage’, reflecting the shared aspiration for a peaceful and secluded life.

CONCLUSION

The development of bamboo brush pot carvings, during the Ming and Qing dynasties, in the realm of spatial narrative not only inherited the compositional principles of landscape painting, but also expanded the expressive dimensions of artistic language through three-dimensional carving, deepening the Chinese philosophical exploration of space, the interplay of void and substance, and the interaction between subject and object. By employing multi-perspective composition, bamboo carving transcended the limitations of single-point perspective, allowing viewers to construct narratives through shifting and fluid viewpoints, thus aligning with the cosmological concept of unity between heaven and humanity. Its carving techniques, which harmoniously integrate void and substance, echo the Daoist concept that “being and non-being generate each other,” allowing the confined space of the bamboo cylinder to convey boundless artistic meaning. Furthermore, bamboo carving utilizes the interplay of light and shadow to create spatial depth, with its visual effects dynamically changing based on the viewer’s perspective, embodying the Yijing (Book of Changes) principle that ‘adaptability follows the flow of time’ and reflecting the Chinese aesthetic pursuit of dynamic wholeness.

More importantly, bamboo brush pots functioned not only as art pieces in a scholar’s study, but also as cultural mediums facilitating interaction among scholars, craftsmen and painters, carrying the cross-class fluidity and the cultural spirit of ‘harmony without uniformity’ inherent in traditional Chinese art. The innovative practices of bamboo brush pot carving not only propelled the cross-media transformation of traditional art, but also vividly illustrated the creative transformation and innovative development of the Chinese aesthetic system throughout history.

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• ⁴
  The Doctrine of the Mean is an ancient Chinese moral philosophy treatise on the cultivation of personal character. It is one of the classics of Confucianism and was originally included in the 31st chapter of the Book of Rites. It is said to have been written by Zisi during the Warring States period.

• ¹
  This work was supported by Major Project of Philosophy and Social Sciences Research in Jiangsu Universities (Number: 2025SJZD110) and Research Startup Fund of Wuxi University (Number: 2024r098).

• Data availability statement:
  The dataset for this article is available in the SciELO Dataverse of the Trans/Form/Ação Journal, at the link: https://doi.org/10.1590/0101-3173.2025.v48.n5.e025130

• Responsible editor:
  Marcos Antonio Alves

Data availability

The dataset for this article is available in the SciELO Dataverse of the Trans/Form/Ação Journal, at the link: https://doi.org/10.1590/0101-3173.2025.v48.n5.e025130

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  01 Sept 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  23 May 2025
• Accepted
  20 June 2025
• Reviewed
  11 July 2025
• Published
  08 Aug 2025