Conservation challenges of Birds of Paradise in Papua, Indonesia: a systematic literature review

Desafios de conservação das aves-do-paraíso em Papua, Indonésia: uma revisão sistemática da literatura

Abstract

Indonesia, recognized as the world's second-largest mega-biodiversity country, is home to a remarkable variety of endemic species, including the iconic Birds of Paradise. Despite its rich biodiversity, the population of Birds of Paradise in Papua, Indonesia, is critically threatened by factors such as habitat loss, hunting, and exploitation. This systematic literature review aims to identify and synthesize the key reasons behind the conservation of these birds and evaluate current conservation strategies. Utilizing the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 354 articles were screened from databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, with 39 articles meeting the inclusion criteria. The review highlights that habitat destruction, introduced species, and unsustainable hunting practices are the primary threats to these species. The novelty of this study lies in its comprehensive synthesis of biological, ecological, and socio-cultural factors influencing the conservation of Birds of Paradise in Papua, as well as the evaluation of advanced genetic technologies as potential conservation strategies. The findings underscore the urgent need for enhanced conservation measures, including the development of advanced genetic technologies and community-driven efforts, to preserve the unique biodiversity of Papua's Birds of Paradise.

Keywords:
endemic birds; biodiversity; Indonesian biodiversity; mega diversity; nature conservation

Resumo

A Indonésia, reconhecida como o segundo maior país em megabiodiversidade do mundo, abriga uma notável variedade de espécies endêmicas, incluindo as icônicas aves-do-paraíso. Apesar de sua rica biodiversidade, a população das aves-do-paraíso em Papua, Indonésia, está criticamente ameaçada por fatores como perda de hábitat, caça e exploração. Esta revisão sistemática da literatura tem como objetivo identificar e sintetizar as principais razões por trás da conservação dessas aves e avaliar as estratégias de conservação atuais. Utilizando as diretrizes PRISMA (Itens Preferenciais para Revisões Sistemáticas e Meta-análises), foram anaçosados 354 artigos de bases de dados, incluindo Scopus, Web of Science e Google Scholar, com 39 artigos atendendo aos critérios de inclusão. A revisão destaca que a destruição de hábitats, espécies introduzidas e práticas de caça insustentáveis são as principais ameaças a essas espécies. A novidade deste estudo reside em sua síntese abrangente dos fatores biológicos, ecológicos e socioculturais que influenciam a conservação das aves-do-paraíso em Papua, bem como na avaliação de tecnologias genéticas avançadas como potenciais estratégias de conservação. As conclusões ressaltam a necessidade urgente de medidas de conservação aprimoradas, incluindo o desenvolvimento de tecnologias genéticas avançadas e esforços comunitários para preservar a biodiversidade única das aves-do-paraíso de Papua.

Palavras-chave:
aves endêmicas; biodiversidade; biodiversidade da Indonésia; megadiversidade; conservação da natureza

1. Introduction

Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms on Earth, encompassing flora, fauna, and microorganisms. This diversity includes all forms of life, from single-celled organisms to complex multicellular ones (Costello and Chaudhary, 2017). A nation is considered highly biodiverse if it has at least 5,000 endemic species and includes marine ecosystems. Indonesia stands out as a country with exceptionally high biodiversity and is recognized as the world's second-largest megadiverse nation. With thousands of islands, Indonesia is home to a vast array of flora and fauna. According to Scales and Marsden (2008) and Boedhihartono (2017), Indonesia harbors 381 endemic species, including the Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), and bird of Paradise (Paradisaeaspp.). Additionally, 17% of the world’s bird species are found in Indonesia (Rahim et al., 2023). By 2019, the number of bird species recorded in Indonesia reached 1,710, with some species being unique to specific regions. The number of endemic birds increased from 397 in 2017 to 510 in 2019, highlighting the critical role these species play in enriching biodiversity and emphasizing the importance of conservation and habitat preservation.

However, despite Indonesia’s high levels of biodiversity, several bird species, including the bird of Paradise, are facing increasing threats. The bird of Paradise, an endemic species with remarkable beauty found in the provinces of Maluku, Halmahera, and Papua, is now at risk of extinction. Papua alone is home to more than 602 bird species, with an endemism rate of 52%, the highest in Indonesia (Tabba and Nurrani, 2016). Known for its striking feathers and vibrant colors, the bird of Paradise is a symbol of Papua’s natural beauty. However, its high commercial value and widespread admiration have led to increased hunting and demand for these birds. This situation, coupled with habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, traditional farming, and human settlements, has caused a significant decline in the population ofParadisaeaspp. (Latupapua et al., 2022). The shrinking population poses a significant threat to the conservation of these birds in Papua. In response, the Indonesian government has implemented protection measures under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry Regulation No. P.106/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/12/2018, which safeguards several species, including the Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisaea minor jobiensis) and the King Bird of Paradise (Cicinnurus regius). However, for these protective measures to be effective, they must be reinforced by conservation efforts that actively involve local communities, ensuring the long-term preservation ofParadisaeaspp. in the wild.

A review of the literature shows that the bird of Paradise has been studied from various angles by numerous researchers. For instance, Heads (2001) explored vicariance biogeography and terrane tectonics in New Guinea, identifying specific physical traits in male birds. Frith and Beehler (1997) delved into the general biology, history, and cultural importance ofParadisaeaspp. Lahallo et al. (2022) highlighted the importance of maintaining tree buffer zones in ecotourism areas to preventParadisaeaspp. from migrating due to habitat disruption. Furthermore, Schrader et al. (2020) created an annotated bird checklist for Gam Island, Raja Ampat, documenting several species newly recorded for the area. Despite these contributions, there remains a gap in research specifically focusing on the reasons for conservingParadisaeaspp. from Papua, Indonesia. The novelty of this study lies in its approach to synthesizing both biological and socio-cultural factors in the conservation of Birds of Paradise, while also evaluating the integration of modern genetic technologies and community-driven strategies, which have not been comprehensively addressed in previous research.

The primary goal of this research is to identify and examine the underlying reasons for the conservation of the bird of Paradise in Papua Province, Indonesia. The study is designed to address three key research questions: (1) What are the different types of biodiversity? (2) What are the motivations behind bird conservation? (3) What are the current conservation practices for the bird of Paradise? By answering these questions, the research aims to provide valuable scientific insights into the conservation ofParadisaeaspp., while also offering practical recommendations for biodiversity conservation efforts in Papua, Indonesia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Procedure

This study utilized a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) to systematically identify, evaluate, and interpret research findings related to the formulated research questions (RQs). The SLR process began with the formulation of specific research questions and was followed by a comprehensive search for relevant articles using thePublish or Perishsoftware, as suggested by Reis et al. (1980). Articles were retrieved from three primary databases: Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, encompassing studies published between 2000 and 2023 to ensure the inclusion of recent advancements in the field (Adriaanse and Rensleigh, 2013). The keywords employed in the search included "biodiversity," "Indonesian biodiversity," "mega diversity," "nature conservation," and "birds of paradise." The selection of articles was performed using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow diagram to maintain transparency and rigor throughout the selection process (Zaluar and Rocha, 2000). The final set of articles was then subjected to qualitative analysis and synthesis, resulting in a comprehensive report of the findings.

2.2. Analysis

The initial search retrieved 354 articles from Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases, and the selection process followed the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) adapted from Zaluar and Rocha (2000). The screening process involved reviewing titles, abstracts, and full texts based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 1). In the identification stage, 237 records were from databases and 117 from registers. Before screening, 47 duplicate records were removed, 69 were automatically flagged as ineligible, and 53 were excluded due to indexing errors or irrelevance. This resulted in 185 records undergoing manual screening, from which 77 were excluded for lack of relevance. Out of the 108 reports deemed relevant for further evaluation, 35 could not be accessed, likely due to unavailability in digital format or access restrictions. Of the remaining reports, 73 were assessed more deeply for eligibility, with 34 excluded: 14 for being outside the specified publication timeframe, 10 for being in languages other than English or Indonesian, and 10 for focusing on unrelated subjects. Ultimately, 39 studies were included in the systematic review, having met all the selection criteria. This thorough and systematic process, guided by the PRISMA framework as shown in Figure 1, ensured the inclusion of only high-quality, relevant studies, enhancing the transparency and rigor of the review.

Figure 1
PRISMA flow diagram for the selection of potential articles.

Table 1
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Research focused on biodiversity, bird conservation, or conservation of birds of paradise as the main study area	Research where biodiversity, bird conservation, or conservation of birds of paradise is not the main focus
Studies involving the Bird of Paradise as research subjects	Studies that do not involve the Bird of Paradise as research subjects
Research utilizing quantitative methods such as descriptive surveys, experiments, or mixed methods	Research not using quantitative methods such as descriptive surveys, experiments, or mixed methods
Articles published by international publishers indexed in Web of Science, Scopus, or Google Scholar, having a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) or ISSN, or by national publishers meeting the same criteria	Articles published by international or national publishers that do not meet the inclusion criteria
Publications dated between 2000 and 2023	Publications dated outside the range of 2000 to 2023
Articles written in English or Indonesian	Articles written in languages other than English or Indonesian

2.3. Data synthesis

Data synthesis was conducted based on the three research questions, which explored (1) types of biodiversity, (2) reasons for bird conservation, and (3) the development of conservation strategies for the bird of paradise. Due to the variety of study designs and the limited number of relevant studies, a narrative synthesis approach was adopted instead of a quantitative meta-analysis (Reis et al., 1980). This method facilitated the systematic integration of findings across the selected studies (Adriaanse and Rensleigh, 2013). The research characteristics were examined, including the first author, country of origin, key findings, and conclusions. In total, 39 articles were classified according to the research questions: 8 articles focused on types of biodiversity, 23 articles addressed the reasons for bird conservation, and 8 articles examined the development of conservation strategies for the bird of paradise (Zaluar and Rocha, 2000). Group discussions and peer evaluations were then conducted to objectively assess the quality of these 39 selected articles.

3. Results

The screening and selection process resulted in the identification of 39 articles that satisfied the inclusion criteria. The central theme derived from these articles was the conservation of birds of paradise in Papua, Indonesia, explored through a systematic literature review. This theme encompasses discussions on biodiversity types, reasons for bird conservation, and specific conservation efforts for birds of paradise.

RQ1: What are the types of biodiversity?

Although Indonesia comprises only 1% of the world's land area, it harbors over 10% of the world's plant and bird species, highlighting its significant biodiversity. Biodiversity in this context is understood as the variation within a population, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity (Table 2) (Reis et al., 1980; Adriaanse and Rensleigh, 2013).

Table 2
Types of biodiversity

Authors	Types of Biodiversity
Mackintosh et al. (2019), Booy et al. (2000)	Genetic Diversity
Mulya et al. (2021a), Chen et al. (2022b), Crawford and Rudgers (2012a), Scrosati et al. (2011a), Flöder and Hillebrand (2012a)	Species Diversity
Emam et al. (2023)	Ecosystem Diversity

RQ2: What are the reasons for bird conservation?

Various stakeholders, including the government and conservation organizations, have implemented numerous strategies to protect birds, such as legislating for bird protection, conserving and restoring habitats, establishing captive populations for reintroduction, and promoting overall bird conservation (Zaluar and Rocha, 2000). Habitat loss emerges as the most critical threat to endangered birds, primarily due to habitat destruction and fragmentation. The review of the 39 selected articles identified 23 that specifically addressed reasons for bird conservation (Table 3). Among the 23 articles reviewed, 3 focused on habitat loss, 7 on introduced species, 2 on hunting and exploitation, 4 on hybridization, and 7 on other threats.

Table 3
Reasons for bird conservation

Authors	Conclusion	Reasons for Bird Conservation
Moody and Grand (2012), Boere and Rubec (2002), Chen et al. (2006)	Habitat quality and quantity must be preserved or enhanced through conservation activities. Bird conservation policy should prioritize habitat preservation.	Habitat Loss
Szabo et al. (2012), Wood et al. (2017), Harper and Bunbury (2015), Bond et al. (2019), McCreless et al. (2016), Fernández-Palacios et al. (2021), Albert et al. (2021)	Introduced species are crucial in conservation efforts, serving as models for protecting endangered native birds.	Introduced Species
Pérez (2021), Guiry et al. (2020)	The hunting and exploitation of the Bird of Paradise, particularly for feathers used in traditional and commercial applications, pose significant threats.	Hunting and Exploitation
Barilani et al. (2007), Vedder et al. (2022), Hernández et al. (2021), Undin et al. (2021)	Hybridization may spread adaptive traits and create new biodiversity but also carries risks such as species extinction or biodiversity decline.	Hybridization
Richard et al. (2021a), Dutta (2017), Ali et al. (2023), Wang et al. (2018), Nemes et al. (2023), Richard et al. (2021b), Dar et al. (2022)	The degradation of bird habitats by deforestation, invasive species, and market trends that affect the economic value of species are threats to protection.	Threats

RQ3: How is the conservation of Birds of Paradise?

Papua Province in Indonesia is home to many beautiful and endemic bird species, including birds of paradise that require protection due to their restricted geographical distribution. Conservation efforts for these species are critical to prevent their extinction. Various strategies, including ex-situ conservation, cryopreservation, captive management, aviculture, and advanced techniques like genome editing, have been employed to protect birds of paradise (Table 4).

Table 4
Conservation of Birds of Paradise

Source	Conclusion	Conservation of Birds of Paradise
Cita et al. (2016), Cita et al. (2019)	Captive breeding of lesser birds of paradise has faced challenges, with identified behavior patterns contributing to these difficulties.	Ex-situ Conservation
Figueiredo et al. (2021)	Cryopreserved embryos of birds of paradise maintain genetic stability, and dehydration prior to cryopreservation enhances seedling development post-cryopreservation.	Cryopreservation
Switzer (2008)	Effective management and breeding practices are essential for biodiversity conservation, particularly in controlling invasive species.	Captive Management
Flanagan et al. (2023), Marcaida (2014)	Breeding efforts in aviculture require careful management. Successful artificial incubation and hand-rearing methods support the growth of small bird populations.	Aviculture
Johnson et al. (2016), Cassin-Sackett et al. (2019)	Genome editing technology offers promising tools for conservation, allowing for DNA modifications that could help preserve endangered species.	Gene Editing Technology

4. Discussion

Biodiversity encompasses various levels, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Species diversity reflects the richness of biological resources and the intricate relationships among organisms and their environments (Barnes et al., 2023; Raven et al., 2011). Genetic diversity refers to the range of genetic factors that influence an organism's phenotypes, which are crucial for the adaptability and survival of species (Guo, 2022). Ecosystem diversity, on the other hand, includes the variety of habitats, biological communities, and ecological processes within the biosphere, which are vital for maintaining ecosystem functions and services (Andrei and Simon, 2022). These different levels of biodiversity are interconnected and play a critical role in the environment and human society. Therefore, conservation and sustainable resource management efforts must prioritize biodiversity protection to mitigate the risks posed by human activities and ensure the preservation of natural capital.

As Mackintosh et al. (2019) and Booy et al. (2000) describe, genetic diversity represents the variation within a population resulting from differences in gene composition. This genetic variation leads to physiological differences among individuals within a species population. For example, genetic diversity in birds can manifest as color variations, as shown by Mulya et al. (2021b), Chen et al. (2022a), Crawford and Rudgers (2012b), Scrosati et al. (2011b), and Flöder and Hillebrand (2012b). Species diversity, which includes species richness and evenness, is another critical component of biodiversity. Species richness refers to the number of species present in a community, while species evenness describes the distribution of individuals among these species. Together, these components contribute to the overall index of species diversity. Ecosystem diversity, defined as the diversity of habitats where organisms live and interact with both biotic and abiotic factors, is particularly varied in Indonesia, encompassing tropical rainforests, lakes, mangroves, grasslands, and more (Emam et al. 2023).

Biodiversity is broadly defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources, including taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity, as well as the ecological complexes they form (Naeem et al., 2016). In Indonesia, biodiversity serves as a crucial resource for national development. The country's rich biodiversity has the potential for sustainable utilization, benefiting numerous sectors such as forestry, agriculture, fisheries, health, science, industry, and tourism (Van Den Bergh et al., 2013). Therefore, conserving biodiversity is essential for the sustainability of these sectors. Given Indonesia's status as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots, particularly in regions like Sundaland, Wallace, and Papua, it is imperative to implement effective conservation measures. Papua, in particular, is recognized for its high biodiversity, especially in bird species (Setiadi et al., 2023).

Indonesia ranks fourth globally in bird diversity, with 1,519 species, 28% of which are endemic. The diversity of habitat types, influenced by area size and distance to other habitats, significantly affects bird species diversity in a region (Triantis et al., 2003; Cui et al., 2022; Duchardt et al., 2018). According to Birdlife International, despite covering only 1% of the world's land area, Indonesia hosts over 10% of the world's plant and bird species. The number of bird species in Indonesia continues to increase, with 1,769 species recorded in 2017 compared to 1,672 in the previous year. This increase includes endemic bird species, which have risen from 427 to 512, and bird species with limited distribution, now numbering 448. These figures place Indonesia among the richest countries in bird diversity, following Colombia, Peru, and Brazil.

Globally, bird populations are declining, with 1,200 species currently threatened with extinction, primarily due to habitat loss. Other significant threats include overhunting, pollution, competition, pesticide use, and climate change. Governments and conservation organizations are actively working to protect birds by enacting legislation, conserving habitats, and establishing captive populations for reintroduction. However, habitat destruction and fragmentation remain the most critical threats. Human activities such as agriculture, mining, urban development, and deforestation continue to reduce natural habitats, leaving fragmented populations vulnerable to local extinction (Shamna et al., 2023). Introduced species, often spread by human activity, also pose substantial threats by disrupting ecosystems and competing with native species. These invasive species can lead to genetic swamping and ecosystem changes, exacerbating biotic homogeneity (Feldhaar and Lach, 2020; Dijkstra et al., 2013; Simberloff, 2009).

Research by Alexeyeff and McDonnell (2018) highlights the severe threat posed by the hunting and exploitation of bird species such as the Blue Bird-of-paradise in Papua New Guinea, where feathers are highly valued for traditional and commercial uses (Balme, 2005). Market integration has somewhat reduced hunting pressure, but raising awareness among locals, public servants, and tourists remains a crucial strategy for conservation. Globally, threats to bird conservation include selective logging, hunting, agriculture, wildlife trade, and defaunation (Lees, 2022). In the Galápagos Islands, threats include pollution, invasive species, human disturbances, climate change, and genetic loss (Alexeyeff and McDonnell, 2018). In Nigeria, the Grey-necked Rock-fowl faces threats from farming, logging, water poisoning, shooting, trapping, and egg harvesting (Odewumi and Abatcha, 2018). Commercial and residential development, agricultural expansion, and deforestation are primary causes of habitat loss for vulnerable vertebrate species (Veach et al., 2017).

Effective bird conservation policies must be biocultural, recognizing the cultural significance of bird species alongside their importance for biodiversity conservation. The desire of local communities to protect their traditional lands can serve as an effective conservation strategy, which should be reflected in national policies (Alcántara-Salinas et al., 2022). Bird conservation is vital because birds are indicators of ecosystem health and biodiversity (McClure et al., 2023). They play crucial roles in energy cycles and food chains, maintaining ecosystem balance (Luther et al., 2016). Additionally, protecting wild relatives of domestic animals from genetic swamping is important for maintaining genetic integrity (Redford and Dudley, 2018). Conservation efforts, including habitat preservation and population recovery programs, are essential for preventing the extinction of threatened species and promoting population growth (Piratelli et al., 2017). Ultimately, bird conservation is crucial for preserving their unique traits, ecological roles, and the overall health of our planet.

Papua Province, located in eastern Indonesia, is rich in natural resources and biodiversity. This region is divided into several provinces, including West Papua, Mountain Papua, South Papua, and Central Papua. It is home to numerous endemic bird species, such asParadisaea apodaandAstrapia stephanie, which require protection due to their limited distribution. However, the populations of these birds are threatened by illegal hunting and habitat destruction. The use of bird of paradise feathers in traditional clothing and customs, as well as their historical use in making women's hats, has contributed to the decline of these species. Deforestation and the loss of tropical rainforests further exacerbate the threat to their survival (Indira, 2021). Overhunting, often targeting species unfamiliar with humans, has also led to the exploitation of birds for food, fur, and scientific collection (Goffette et al., 2020; Von Rintelen et al., 2017).

Various conservation strategies, including ex-situ conservation, cryopreservation, and captive breeding, are being employed to protect birds of paradise. Institutions such as the Bird Park at "Taman Mini Indonesia Indah" are renowned for their ex-situ conservation efforts (Cita et al., 2016; Figueiredo et al., 2021). Ex-situ conservation involves preserving genetic diversity outside of natural habitats, as seen in gene banks or zoological gardens (Maxted, 2013). Captive breeding and reintroduction programs are also crucial for maintaining biodiversity and studying the physiology and behavior of captive populations (Ringler, 2012). Cryopreservation techniques have shown promise in preserving the anatomical features and genetic stability of bird of paradise species (Switzer, 2008; Figueiredo et al., 2021). Ultimately, successful conservation of birds of paradise requires a combination of strategies, including habitat conservation, genetic preservation, and captive breeding programs.

The conservation of biodiversity in Papua, particularly for the Birds of Paradise, depends not only on scientific methods but also on the active participation of local communities, whose lives are closely connected with these species. The role of these communities is multifaceted, encompassing traditional ecological knowledge, socio-economic practices, and cultural values. Their local knowledge plays a crucial role in bird conservation, as traditional farming practices can either support or hinder bird diversity, highlighting the need to integrate this knowledge with formal conservation strategies. For example, Andrade et al., (2016) emphasize that sustainable agricultural practices in local communities are essential for maintaining bird populations. Additionally, the socio-economic context must be considered, as Jepson et al., (2011) show that bird-keeping practices can impact wild populations. Involving local communities through voluntary conservation programs fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility toward bird conservation. Community-based initiatives, such as bird monitoring programs, are effective in both conservation and environmental education, empowering locals with the knowledge and tools to contribute meaningfully to conservation efforts (Şekercioğlu, 2012). Furthermore, avitourism presents an opportunity for economic growth, as Steven et al. (2014) note that birdwatching tourism can generate income while promoting conservation. This provides an economic incentive for local communities to engage in habitat preservation. Incorporating traditional ecological knowledge into conservation strategies, as discussed by Ungirwalu et al. (2017), further strengthens conservation efforts by respecting and integrating local practices into broader initiatives. In summary, the participation of local Papuan communities, through their ecological knowledge and economic involvement, is essential for effective and sustainable bird conservation. By combining scientific approaches with traditional wisdom and socio-economic incentives, a more comprehensive conservation strategy can be developed to protect the unique biodiversity of Papua.

In addition to traditional conservation methods, advanced technologies like gene editing and cloning offer new possibilities for conservation efforts. CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology has been successfully applied to birds, including chickens, to create transgenic individuals (Marshall, 2000). While gene editing in bird species is still developing, and cloning remains a promising tool for conservation, these technologies could revolutionize the conservation and recovery of threatened species like the bird of paradise (Woodcock et al., 2017). The integration of gene editing and cloning could lead to innovative approaches for ensuring the long-term survival of endangered bird species.

5. Conclusions

The systematic literature review on the conservation challenges of Birds of Paradise in Papua, Indonesia, reveals significant threats to these endemic species, primarily driven by habitat destruction, hunting, and the introduction of non-native species. The study underscores the inadequacies of current conservation strategies, which, although varied, including ex-situ conservation and advanced genetic technologies, require urgent enhancement and greater community involvement. The review highlights the necessity for integrated conservation efforts that combine habitat preservation with modern biotechnological approaches, to ensure the long-term survival of these emblematic species. The findings emphasize the critical role of local and global conservation initiatives in addressing the pressing threats to the biodiversity of Papua. Future research should focus on the effectiveness of these strategies, particularly the application of gene editing and other emerging technologies, to enhance conservation outcomes and mitigate the ongoing decline of Birds of Paradise.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  17 Feb 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  17 Aug 2024
• Accepted
  23 Oct 2024