Advancements in green extraction technologies for pectin enhancing efficiency, sustainability, and functional properties: a systematic review

Malpartida Yapias, R. J.; Ore Areche, F.; Echevarria Victorio, J. P.; Paucarchuco Soto, J.; Lobato Calderon, G. R.; Palomino Santos, E. R.; Montalvo Otivo, J. M.; Flores-Miranda, C.; Ruiz Rodriguez, A.

doi:10.1590/1519-6984.287792

Abstract

Plants produce pectin as a versatile biopolymer stemming from their cell walls where it shows importance in food together with pharmaceuticals and cosmetics because of its gel-forming ability and thickening and stabilizing traits. The extraction techniques for pectin traditionally demand high amounts of power alongside hazardous solvents while needing extended processing durations. The development of emerging green extraction technologies (ET) provides sustainable and efficient extraction methodologies. This analysis conducts a systematic assessment of different ETs for pectin extraction by examining UAE alongside MAE and includes evaluation of supercritical CO₂, HPP, and PEF extraction methods. These methods present advantages such as higher extraction performance with lowered energy usage as well as better pectin rheological properties that enhance both gel strength and viscosity. ETs effectively maintain or magnify functional properties in pectin which increases its potential for high-end uses in food items and supplements and cosmetics. These technologies provide an environmentally beneficial method through their reduced reliance on solvents and reduced creation of waste products. Research alongside technological progress hopes to solve existing hurdles associated with equipment costs and scalability because these hurdles currently prevent widespread adoption of these methods, but the solutions will enable industrial-scale use. There exists an opportunity through green extraction technologies to create a sustainable future for industrial pectin production.

Keywords:
pectin extraction; green technologies; ultrasound-assisted extraction; high-pressure processing; supercritical CO₂

Resumo

As plantas produzem pectina como um biopolímero versátil, proveniente de suas paredes celulares, onde demonstra importância em alimentos, além de produtos farmacêuticos e cosméticos, devido à sua capacidade de formação de gel e às suas características espessantes e estabilizantes. As técnicas de extração de pectina tradicionalmente demandam altas quantidades de energia, além de solventes perigosos, necessitando de longos períodos de processamento. O desenvolvimento de tecnologias emergentes de extração verde (ET) proporciona metodologias de extração sustentáveis e eficientes. Esta análise conduz uma avaliação sistemática de diferentes ETs para extração de pectina, examinando a EAU juntamente com a MAE, e inclui a avaliação de métodos de extração com CO₂ supercrítico, HPP e PEF. Esses métodos apresentam vantagens como maior desempenho de extração com menor consumo de energia, bem como melhores propriedades reológicas da pectina, que aumentam tanto a força do gel quanto a viscosidade. As ETs mantêm ou ampliam efetivamente as propriedades funcionais da pectina, o que aumenta seu potencial para usos de alta qualidade em alimentos, suplementos e cosméticos. Essas tecnologias proporcionam um método ambientalmente benéfico através da sua reduzida dependência de solventes e da redução da criação de resíduos. A investigação, juntamente com o progresso tecnológico, espera resolver os obstáculos existentes associados aos custos dos equipamentos e à escalabilidade, porque esses obstáculos impedem atualmente a adoção generalizada desses métodos, mas as soluções permitirão a utilização à escala industrial. Existe uma oportunidade através de tecnologias de extração verde para criar um futuro sustentável para a produção industrial de pectina.

Palavras-chave:
extração de pectina; tecnologias verdes; extração assistida por ultrassom; processamento de alta pressão; CO₂ supercrítico

1. Introduction

The primary place where one finds pectin as a natural polysaccharide exists in fruit and vegetable cell walls particularly concentrated within citrus peels alongside apple pomace and additional fruit waste products (Ozcan et al., 2024). Because pectin creates unique gels it serves as a gelling agent that industry primarily utilizes for jams jellies candies and additional gels in food products. The pharmaceutical industry uses pectin as a stabilizer while it serves the cosmetic sector through its role in emulsion and skin hydration properties. The widespread usage of pectin as a functional ingredient in dietary supplements and functional foods grows because of its ability to form gels and retain water and function as a prebiotic which benefits its increasing popularity according to Obayomi et al. (2024). Pectin extraction remains traditional through acidic aqueous solutions joined with heat for breaking plant cell walls to obtain pectin release. The established extraction methods face major obstacles because they need long processing durations and high energy input and require significant solvent quantities which cause environmental damage. Industrial-scale pectin production faces sustainability challenges because toxic chemicals and considerable waste output define the operation of these methods (Santos et al., 2025). Pectin extraction affects both yield levels and performs functions that determine its functionality across food products as well as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics applications. The growing need arises from the requirement of more environmentally friendly and efficient technologies for extraction processes. Research on green extraction technologies has become increasingly prominent in the past several years. These promising extraction methods comprising UAE and MAE along with supercritical CO₂ extraction and HPP and PEF systems present alternative solutions to contemporary extraction of pectin. Green extraction technologies combine multiple features to decrease energy requirements as well as reduce solvent usage while speeding up extraction periods and achieving superior pectin outputs. Green extraction methods developed recently have transformed industrial production by creating high-quality products that demonstrate improved functional attributes which make them suitable across different industrial applications (Zhu et al., 2025; Masyita et al., 2025; Negi et al., 2025).

2. Need for Emerging Extraction Technologies

New green extraction methods provide numerous performance benefits better than traditional extraction protocols do. The most important feature of these technologies combines optimized production performance with environmental conservation aspects. Balanced plant cells become more permeable via UAE when sound waves at frequencies above 20 kHz generate cavitation bubbles thus enhancing extraction efficiency (Pawar et al., 2025). The extraction process becomes more rapid under MAE when electromagnetic waves are applied to heat plant materials because they enhance the solvent's interaction with plant tissues. These technologies speed up extraction processes and decrease energy utilization as well as total processing time when compared to traditional heating-based practices (Nastić et al., 2025). The functional characteristics found in pectin maintain their properties through these technological techniques. Pectin extraction through HPP succeeds effectively by skipping extreme heat requirements thus enabling preservation of pectoral bioactive substances like dietary fiber content along with antioxidant properties and probiotic functions (Haque et al., 2025). Pectin extraction through supercritical CO₂ extraction uses carbon dioxide at supercritical state as solvent to obtain high-purity pectin while creating minimal harm to the environment because CO₂ acts as a non-toxic solvent and it has recycling potential. Supercritical CO₂ extraction stands as a desirable method to obtain functional pectin suitable for high-value dietary supplement and pharmaceutical formulations according to Mahanti et al. (2024). The demand for better pectin extraction methods which combine efficiency with sustainability emerged because consumers want natural products with no artificial labels. New eco-friendly extraction methods emerged because consumers nowadays actively seek food products that consist of no synthetic additives or preservatives. The emerging technologies PEF and subcritical water extraction enable the extraction of high-quality pectin as well as enhance its functional characteristics to support natural organic food formulation needs (Khubber et al., 2023).

3. Rheological Properties of Pectin

The rheological characteristics of pectin function as essential factors when applying the substance as a gelling agent while stabilizing and thickening food and pharmaceutical formulations. The main rheological characteristics of pectin include gel strength viscosity along with elasticity which control how food products feel in the mouth. Traditional extraction methods deliver effective results, but such methods result in pectin with unpredictable gel strength and unstable viscosity because of heat-based degradation and chemical changes occurring in extraction processes. New green extraction methods demonstrate improved capabilities to safeguard as well as strengthen these characteristics. Pearling pectin through UAE generates extraction products that exceed traditional pectin properties by delivering stronger gels with better viscosities because ultrasonic wave impacts on plant cells achieve more efficient pectin concentration. Pectin extracted through MAE experiences better uniform heating that results in more dependable rheological properties. Supercritical CO₂ extraction results in pectin products with larger molecular weights that produce more viscosity hence they become useful for products needing thickening agents (Basak and Annapure, 2022). These technological solutions can boost and protect pectin functional properties to make them important in food applications because they affect gel properties and preserve mouthfeel and stability of items including gels and beverages and preserves. Pectin requires appropriate viscosity and gel strength properties when used as a tablet binder and disintegrant in pharmaceutical production (Choudhury et al., 2022).

4. Industrial Applications and Potential

Emerging technologies used to extract pectin enable applications across three primary sectors which include food manufacturing and pharmaceutical industries and cosmetic manufacturing. The food industry implements pectin mainly because of its gelling and stabilizing and thickening capabilities within jelly and jam and beverage products (Freitas et al., 2021). Green extraction technologies create value by preserving pectin quality with low solvent usage which improves their suitability for developing safe ingredients with no artificial additives. Pectin serves pharmaceutical applications by enhancing dietary supplements and capsules because of its prebiotic properties which combine with fiber content and gel matrix formation ability (Sun et al., 2023). Supercritical CO₂ extraction along with microwave-assisted extraction have found increasing use in pharmaceutical manufacturing because of the rising market need for bioactive natural pharmaceutical ingredients. Pectin enables cosmetic manufacturing by providing moisture retention and blending properties along with formative thin layers especially in cosmetic applications. Subcritical water extraction represents an emerging technology which secures pectin bioactive properties so that it can be utilized in natural and organic skincare products for clean beauty applications.

The main purpose of this research investigates the efficacy of modern eco-friendly extraction methods that optimize pectin extraction efficiency together with sustainability aspects. Selecting appropriate pectin extraction technologies represents the first research target to streamline the procedure with minimized energy needs and solvent usage as well as shortened extraction durations and superior pectin yield and quality. The study evaluates pectin rheological properties extracted through different procedures by measuring gel strength and viscosity and elasticity because these factors determine its suitability for the food and pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. The research aims to present a complete evaluation on how these technologies function across different industrial markets including food products and pharmaceuticals and cosmetics by exploring their scalability properties and sustainability factors and the accompanying functional advantages. This research dives into these elements with the goal of comprehending advanced technology potential in maximizing pectin extraction for sustainable industrial process development.

5. Materials and Methods

5.1. Pectin processing

Pectin is a complex polysaccharide primarily found in the cell walls of plants. Its extraction involves a series of steps: raw material selection, pretreatment, extraction, and post-processing. The raw materials for pectin extraction are typically agricultural by-products, often fruits and vegetables that are not suitable for consumption or commercialization due to quality issues. These materials can include fruits that are overly ripe, affected by pests or diseases, or those that are damaged during harvest. For example, mangoes, apples, citrus fruits, and bananas are commonly used as pectin sources (Lai et al., 2022). In this review, two main types of agro-industrial by-products are considered for pectin processing: Fruits that cannot be sold for consumption, such as those affected by adverse weather conditions, pests, or diseases, or fruits that lack peel protection, have imbalanced sweet-sour ratios, or have short post-harvest shelf life. Pomace from wine or fruit juice production is another common source of pectin, as it is rich in pectin and often discarded after juice extraction. Pectin, due to its solubility in cold water and insolubility in some organic solvents, often undergoes a purification step using hydroalcoholic precipitation methods to separate it from the raw plant material. Downstream processing operations also have significant effects on the structure and functionality of pectin, which is crucial for producing pectin with specific functional attributes, such as rheological properties, gel strength, and nutritional benefits.

5.2. Extraction of pectin from various plant sources

The major agro-industrial waste products such as fruit and vegetable peels, pomace, and waste fruit fractions have been successfully valorized for pectin extraction. Several methods of extraction are explored in the literature, including traditional heat extraction and newer green technologies (Table 1). These following Table 1 results highlight the diverse extraction conditions for different raw materials and their impact on the yield and quality of pectin.

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Table 1
The pectin content and extraction conditions from various plant sources.

5.3. Innovative approaches to improve pectin extraction

Pectin extractability together with functionality depends on multiple variables including technological methods and extraction solvent types as well as time duration and temperature and pressure conditions. The variables challenge researchers to develop emerging green extraction technologies which improve pectin yield quality and sustainability outcome. The emerging technologies surpass traditional methods by combining shorter extraction times with elevated yield performance together with minimal solvent requirement as illustrated in Table 2.

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Table 2
A clear overview of each emerging technology's merits and demerits.

6. Methodology

6.1. Kind of investigation

The present study adopts a systematic bibliographic review methodology to explore and synthesize the existing body of literature regarding the impact of emerging technologies on the performance and rheological characteristics of pectins extracted from various plant sources. By systematically reviewing studies that assess different green technologies for pectin extraction, this investigation expands the possibilities of selecting the most suitable technology for specific industrial sectors, such as food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries.

The aim of this review is to:

Identify the most effective technologies for pectin extraction that improve efficiency and sustainability.
Assess the rheological properties of pectin extracted through various methods.
Provide a comprehensive evaluation of the practical applications of these technologies across industrial sectors.

6.2. Research design

The research design for this systematic review follows a structured approach to ensure the selection of relevant, high-quality studies that contribute to the understanding of the impact of emerging technologies on pectin extraction.

6.3. Selection of databases

The main sources and databases consulted for this review were: Scopus, Scielo, and ScienceDirect. These databases were chosen because of their extensive coverage of scientific, peer-reviewed articles on food science, biotechnologies, and related areas. They are well-established resources for locating high-quality studies in the field of food technology and green extraction processes. A structured search strategy was employed to gather studies from these databases. The search used specific keywords derived from the PIO (Population, Intervention, Outputs) strategy, which is widely used in systematic reviews to ensure comprehensive and reproducible search results (Table 3).

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Table 3
Application of the PIO strategy to determine the search equations.

6.4. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

An advanced search was conducted using the key search terms in Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Scielo databases to locate relevant studies that meet the scope of this review. Studies considered for inclusion must meet the following criteria as shown in Table 4 and Table 5.

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Table 4
Inclusion criteria of the study.

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Table 5
Exclusion criteria of the study.

6.5. Analysis method

serves as an established framework for systematic reviews by offering an organized system to choose studies also providing quality assessment and optimization procedures during review analysis. The methodology includes both a detailed checklist and a flowchart which performs as step-by-step guides for managing the systematic review process. All essential aspects receive attention through the checklist that directs researchers to establish their review questions and search method and selection criteria as well as data extraction method and findings synthesis. Implement PRISMA guidelines to maintain transparent reproducible procedures which deliver systematic unbiased selection of studies together with quality assessment. Using the PRISMA methodology becomes critical for reviewing studies from substantial literature sources because it enables identifying research that makes significant contributions toward review goals about emerging technologies in pectin extraction systems.

6.6. Population and sample size

For the systematic review, a total of 43 scientific articles were reviewed. These articles were obtained from the selected databases: Scopus, Scielo, and ScienceDirect. These databases were specifically chosen due to their wide range of reputable, peer-reviewed journals in the fields of food science, biotechnology, and environmental sciences, which are directly relevant to the study's focus on emerging technologies for pectin extraction. The studies selected were directly related to the extraction technologies under review, focusing on the methodologies, process parameters, and the functional characteristics of pectin. In the first phase of the search, a larger pool of studies was identified, but after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 43 articles were deemed relevant to the review's objectives. These articles formed the core of the theoretical foundation for the systematic review, contributing data on the yield, rheological properties, and environmental impact of various pectin extraction methods.

6.7. Data collection techniques

The data collection technique for this systematic review was carried out with a structured approach to ensure rigor and transparency in selecting and analyzing relevant studies. Studies that did not specifically address the extraction of pectin or green extraction technologies were excluded. The remaining articles were then assessed for eligibility based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Only studies that provided detailed descriptions of the extraction procedures, evaluated extraction yield, and assessed rheological properties of pectin, published within the last five years, were considered for inclusion in the review. After applying these criteria, the selected studies were further reviewed, and data extraction was performed. A consistent extraction template was used to gather key information from each study, including the type of technology employed, the experimental conditions (such as temperature, time, and pressure), and the outcomes (such as yield, gel strength, and viscosity) (Figure 1). This ensured that the data was collected systematically and that all relevant details were captured for comparison.

Figure 1
Data selection process of the study.

6.8. Qualitative analysis and data extraction

The search process identified 186 documents, which were preselected based on relevance to pectin extraction using emerging technologies. These results were exported in CSV format and uploaded into the Bibliophagy program for bibliometric analysis. This tool allowed for a detailed examination of key data, including authors, publication year, and keywords. By analyzing the keywords, thematic areas were established, helping to identify the most used emerging technologies for pectin extraction, such as ultrasound, microwave-assisted extraction, and supercritical CO₂. Network visualization was created to illustrate these technological trends and highlight the focus areas in pectin extraction research (Figure 2). This qualitative analysis provided a clear view of the key research themes and trends, helping to assess the impact and application of green technologies in pectin extraction.

Figure 2
Network visualization by keywords of the study.

The analysis of the most relevant sources allowed us to identify scientific journals with the greatest relevance on the topic of pectin extraction using emerging technologies. It is also a guide to the H Index and the scientific impact of each journal (Figure 3).

Figure 3
Article selection of the study on an area basis.

7. Results

Emerging green extraction technologies have revolutionized the pectin extraction process, providing substantial improvements in efficiency, sustainability, and functional pectin properties compared to traditional methods. These technologies focus on using less energy and fewer toxic solvents, which aligns with the global movement towards more environmentally friendly and economically viable practices.

7.1. Novel green extraction methods for pectin

Emerging green technologies have proven to be highly effective in the extraction of pectin from various plant materials, offering significant improvements in efficiency, sustainability, and functional properties. These methods are gaining increasing attention in both research and industrial applications due to their potential to reduce extraction time, solvent usage, and energy consumption, all while maintaining or enhancing the quality of the pectin. Below is a detailed explanation of the most promising green extraction technologies:

7.2. Ultrasound-assisted extraction

The UAE utilizes sonic waves at frequencies above 20 kHz to generate microbubbles in the solvent. These bubbles collapse upon reaching plant tissue, leading to cavitation. This process breaks down the cell walls and enhances the diffusion of the solvent into the cells, thereby improving mass transfer and facilitating the release of pectin from the plant material. UAE is particularly effective for hard-to-extract pectin, offering high extraction yields and good rheological properties such as gel strength and viscosity. UAE has been successfully applied to a wide variety of fruits and vegetables, including mandarin, grapefruit, mango, and pitahaya. These studies demonstrated that UAE shortens extraction time compared to conventional methods, making it an energy-efficient and sustainable alternative. The pectin extracted using UAE was found to have good gelling properties and functional characteristics.

7.3. Ohmic heating

OH, is an innovative technique that involves passing an electric current through food materials to generate uniform and rapid heating. In the process, electrical fields are applied to the food material, which leads to fast and uniform heating throughout the sample, improving extraction efficiency. OH, is particularly beneficial in reducing the heat degradation of pectin, preserving its functional properties such as gel strength and viscosity. In addition to enhancing extraction, OH also inactivates enzymes like pectin methyl esterase and polyphenol oxidase, which are responsible for degrading pectin. This enables the extraction of high-quality pectin with higher yields. OH, has been successfully applied to pomegranate, with studies showing that it can increase the degree of esterification and galacturonic acid content in pectin. The viscosity and gel strength of the pectin extracted using OH were significantly improved, making it an efficient and effective method for pectin extraction.

7.4. Supercritical CO₂ extraction

Supercritical CO₂ extraction uses supercritical CO₂ (a fluid state where CO₂ is above its critical temperature and pressure) to extract pectin with minimal solvent use. The supercritical state of CO₂ provides high solvent power, allowing it to efficiently penetrate plant materials and extract high-purity pectin. This technology is particularly advantageous for functional food applications, as it results in clean and high-quality pectin. Supercritical CO₂ is especially suitable for extracting pectin from citrus peels and other plant residues, as it allows for the recovery of pure, bioactive pectin while minimizing environmental impact. Unlike traditional methods that require toxic solvents, supercritical CO₂ is considered non-toxic, environmentally friendly, and energy efficient. The main drawback of this technology is the high cost of equipment and the need for precise temperature and pressure control, but its advantages in producing clean and high-purity pectin make it ideal for specialized applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

7.5. Pulsed electric fields

PEF involves applying short bursts of high-voltage pulses to plant material. Electric pulses cause electroporation, the formation of pores in cell membranes, which enhances mass transfer and increases the permeability of the plant tissue. This allows for more efficient extraction of pectin and other bioactive compounds. PEF has proven to be an eco-friendly and efficient extraction method, particularly for tough-to-extract pectin from carrot, jackfruit, tomato, and passion fruit peel. It offers a non-thermal, low-energy extraction alternative that preserves nutritional properties of pectin. The increased permeability and diffusion rate of solvents into plant cells significantly improve extraction efficiency while maintaining the functional properties of pectin.

7.6. High-pressure processing

HPP is a non-thermal processing technique that involves applying hydraulic pressure to food materials, leading to the disruption of cell structures and the release of pectin. This method does not require high temperatures, thus preserving heat-sensitive compounds and bioactive components of pectin, such as fiber and polyphenols. HPP has shown great potential for enhancing the yield of pectin, especially from high-pressure sensitive fruits. In addition to extracting pectin efficiently, HPP preserves its rheological properties and maintains its nutritional value. Pectin extracted via HPP has been shown to exhibit higher gel strength and better water retention, making it ideal for use in food and pharmaceutical applications where high gel strength is required. Despite the high initial cost of equipment, HPP is considered an energy-efficient and sustainable method for large-scale pectin production.

7.7. Radio frequency and microwave-assisted extraction

The RF and MAE are two methods that use electromagnetic waves to heat plant tissues rapidly, improving the solvent diffusion rate and extraction efficiency. These methods allow for faster extraction with lower energy consumption compared to traditional methods. Radio frequency uses a moving electrode to regulate the heating rate, achieving rapid and uniform heating. The method has been applied successfully to apple pomace and fresh pulp samples, producing higher extraction yields with minimal energy input. MAE uses microwave energy to heat the plant material directly, which accelerates solvent penetration and cell disruption, resulting in higher yields of pectin in shorter extraction times. MAE has been used to extract pectin from various sources, including elephant apple and cocoa pods, yielding pectin with higher degrees of esterification and improved functional properties. Both RF and MAE offer energy-efficient, rapid extraction techniques that reduce processing time and solvent use, making them highly sustainable alternatives for pectin extraction.

7.8. Subcritical water extraction

Subcritical water extraction is a green technology that utilizes water heated under pressure but below its boiling point (approximately 100 °C) to extract pectin. The water in this state exhibits higher solubility and can efficiently penetrate plant cell walls, making it an ideal solvent for pectin extraction. This method is particularly effective for extracting pectin from citrus peels and apple pomace, yielding high gel strength and improved functional properties. Pectin extracted using subcritical water has been found to have higher antioxidant activity and better gelling properties, making it suitable for functional food applications. Subcritical water extraction is an environmentally friendly and cost-effective method, as it uses water (a natural solvent) and does not require additional chemicals or solvents, aligning with the trend toward sustainable food processing.

7.9. Key process parameters and mechanisms

The effectiveness of these technologies depends on the careful control of various process parameters, which include frequency, temperature, pressure, and time. The main mechanisms behind these technologies—such as cavitation (in UAE), electrothermal effects (in OH), and cell wall disruption (in PEF)—work in tandem to facilitate efficient extraction (Table 6).

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Table 6
The key process parameters and the main mechanisms for each technology.

7.10. Rheological properties of pectin extracted through various methods

The rheological properties of pectin, which include gel strength, viscosity, and elasticity, are crucial for its applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. This study evaluated how emerging green extraction technologies affect these properties, and the following results were obtained:

7.11. Gel strength

Technologies like UAE) and HPP have been found to improve gel strength in the extracted pectin. UAE facilitates faster solvent penetration into plant cells, resulting in more effective breakdown of cell walls, which enhances the gel-forming ability of pectin. This is especially important for applications like jams, jellies, and other gel-based food products. Similarly, HPP allows for the extraction of pectin with stronger gels without using high temperatures, preserving the functional properties of pectin.

7.12. Viscosity

Supercritical CO₂ extraction and MAE significantly affect the viscosity of the extracted pectin. Pectin extracted using supercritical CO₂ was shown to have a higher molecular weight, contributing to greater viscosity. This makes the pectin ideal for food applications that require thickening agents. Microwave-assisted extraction also demonstrated an increase in viscosity due to uniform heating that enhanced the interaction between pectin molecules and the solvent, resulting in viscous solutions. This improved viscosity makes pectin suitable for dairy products and beverages.

7.13. Elasticity and functional properties

Subcritical water extraction was found to produce pectin with better elastic properties and improved functional characteristics such as antioxidant activity and emulsifying ability. This is important for industries like cosmetics, where pectin is used as a moisturizing agent in lotions and creams. The ability of subcritical water to extract pectin under mild conditions also helps preserve its bioactive properties, making it beneficial for functional foods and pharmaceutical applications.

7.14. Degree of esterification

Technologies such as PEF and supercritical CO₂ resulted in pectin with a higher degree of esterification. The degree of esterification influences the gelling properties of pectin. Pectin with a higher DE typically forms stronger gels, which are crucial for products like fruit preserves. These findings demonstrate that the choice of extraction technology has a significant impact on the rheological properties of pectin, which directly influences its functional applications in various industries. Technologies like UAE, HPP, and MAE improve gel strength and viscosity, while subcritical water and PEF enhance elasticity and bioactivity.

7.15. Practical applications of these technologies across industrial sectors

Emerging green extraction technologies for pectin are not only improving the quality and yield of pectin but also expanding its practical applications across various industrial sectors. The following evaluation provides insights into the application of these technologies in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries:

7.16. Food industry

Pectin is a widely used functional ingredient in the food industry, primarily for its gelling, thickening, and stabilizing properties. Technologies like UAE and MAE have shown great promises of producing high-quality pectin suitable for various food products: Technologies such as UAE and MAE help achieve stronger gel formation, making the extracted pectin ideal for jam and jelly production. These technologies enhance gel strength, a critical property in these products, without requiring additional chemical additives or synthetic gelling agents. Supercritical CO₂ extraction has been particularly effective in producing high-purity pectin with high viscosity, making it suitable for beverages and dairy-based products that require natural thickening agents. Pectin extracted through this method retains its functional properties while minimizing the need for synthetic additives. Emerging technologies like HPP offer an energy-efficient and eco-friendly method to extract pectin, which can be applied to organic and sustainable food products. This technology preserves the nutritional content of pectin and improves its gel strength and water retention capabilities, making it ideal for clean-label products.

7.17. Pharmaceutical Industry

In the pharmaceutical industry, pectin is used for its prebiotic effects, fiber content, and gelling properties in tablets, capsules, and dietary supplements. The emerging green extraction technologies provide several advantages for the pharmaceutical sector: Pectin extracted using supercritical CO₂ and microwave-assisted extraction has shown enhanced biological activity, making it ideal for use in functional foods and dietary supplements. These methods preserve the bioactive compounds of pectin, which are critical for its prebiotic effects in gut health. PEF and HPP have shown great potential in producing pharmaceutical-grade pectin that can be used as a natural binder and disintegrant in tablet formulations. The increased permeability of plant materials achieved through PEF leads to better extraction and functional properties, making pectin an excellent choice for pharmaceutical products.

7.18. Cosmetic industry

Pectin is utilized in the cosmetic industry for its moisturizing, gelling, and film-forming properties. The following emerging extraction technologies have practical applications in cosmetics: Subcritical water extraction has been shown to produce pectin with excellent elasticity and hydrating properties, making it highly suitable for moisturizing creams, lotions, and skin care products. This technology helps preserve the bioactive properties of pectin, enhancing its effectiveness in cosmetic formulations. MAE is increasingly being used to extract pectin for use in cosmetic formulations that require high gel strength and stability. Pectin extracted using MAE can provide better texture and stability in products like face masks, shampoos, and conditioners. The eco-friendly nature of UAE and HPP make these technologies an attractive option for extracting pectin for natural and organic cosmetics. These methods minimize the use of chemicals and solvents, making the final product more suitable for clean beauty applications.

8. Discussion

This study systematically assessed the impact of emerging green extraction technologies on pectin extraction, focusing on their efficiency, rheological properties, and practical applications across industrial sectors. The findings highlight significant advancements in sustainable extraction methods, which offer enhanced extraction yields, functional properties of pectin, and reduced environmental impact compared to conventional extraction techniques. These changes are largely driven by technological innovations and growing demand for eco-friendly and sustainable food processing methods. The shift from conventional methods, which often involve high temperatures, prolonged extraction times, and the use of toxic solvents, to emerging green technologies reflects the desire for more efficient processes. Technologies such as UAE, MAE, and supercritical CO₂ extraction have been shown to significantly reduce extraction time while enhancing the yield and quality of pectin. These methods rely on physical forces (e.g., sonic waves in UAE or microwave heating in MAE), making them faster and more energy-efficient compared to traditional aqueous extraction methods. The reduced extraction time directly impacts industrial-scale applications, reducing overall energy consumption and making these methods economically viable for large-scale pectin production (Boukid et al., 2020). One of the primary reasons for the adoption of green extraction technologies is the growing emphasis on sustainability in food and pharmaceutical industries. Traditional extraction methods rely heavily on solvents and high energy inputs, which contribute to pollution and environmental harm. The shift to technologies like PEF, HPP, and supercritical CO₂ reduces the need for solvents and minimizes energy consumption (Cheng et al., 2018). For instance, supercritical CO₂ extraction uses CO₂ in its supercritical state as a non-toxic solvent, which helps to avoid the environmental impact associated with organic solvents used in traditional methods (Alvarez et al., 2017). This shift is in line with the broader trend of adopting greener and more sustainable practices in food processing, which is critical to meet the increasing demand for sustainable food products (Santos et al., 2019). Another important reason for the change in extraction methods is the ability of emerging technologies to preserve the quality and functional properties of pectin. HPP and supercritical CO₂ extraction preserve the DE and gel strength of pectin, making it more suitable for applications in high-end foods and pharmaceutical products (Yuan et al., 2019). High gel strength and viscosity are desirable in food applications such as jams, jellies, and confectionery products, where the textural properties of pectin are critical. Moreover, these methods also maintain the bioactive properties of pectin, such as prebiotic effects, which are essential for its growing use in functional foods (Choudhury et al., 2020). Though some emerging technologies like supercritical CO₂ extraction may require expensive equipment and specialized control of pressure and temperature, they are becoming economically feasible due to their high extraction yields and reduced need for solvents (Mehta et al., 2019). Additionally, the ability to scale these methods for industrial applications is becoming more viable as these technologies are optimized for mass production. For example, HPP has been successfully scaled up to extract pectin from industrial fruit by-products, allowing manufacturers to maximize yields from waste streams (Ariza et al., 2020). As technology improves, the costs associated with these methods will continue to decrease, making them more accessible for large-scale operations. The literature supports the findings of this study, as several recent studies have highlighted the significant advantages of green extraction technologies in improving pectin extraction efficiency. The UAE and MAE have been shown to reduce extraction time, improve yield, and reduce energy consumption (Boukid et al., 2020; Zhi et al., 2018). Similarly, supercritical CO₂ extraction has been widely recognized for its ability to extract high-purity pectin, particularly from citrus peels, with minimal environmental impact (Alvarez et al., 2017). A study by Ariza et al. (2020) demonstrated that HPP could increase pectin yield and gel strength while preserving its nutritional content. This finding supports the idea that HPP offers a superior method for pectin extraction, especially for high-value functional food applications. Furthermore, PEF and subcritical water extraction have been shown to produce pectin with better functional properties, including higher antioxidant activity and improved gel strength. These studies demonstrate that the emerging technologies discussed in this study align with recent trends in green extraction methods that aim to improve both efficiency and sustainability in the extraction of pectin.

9. Future Research Direction

The future direction of this study could focus on several key areas to further enhance the findings and broaden our understanding. Firstly, expanding the sample size by including students from additional districts, regions, or even other provinces would provide a more comprehensive perspective and allow for more generalizable conclusions. A longitudinal analysis could also be beneficial, tracking students' progress over time to uncover the long-term impacts of various factors on academic performance and educational outcomes. Furthermore, future research could explore the inclusion of additional variables, such as socio-economic status, parental education levels, and access to resources, to better understand their influence on student achievement. Intervention-based studies could also be a valuable next step, focusing on the implementation and evaluation of educational strategies like targeted tutoring or changes in teaching methodologies to identify effective ways to improve academic outcomes. Given the growing role of technology in education, investigating the impact of digital tools and platforms on student learning and engagement, particularly in remote or underserved areas, would also be a valuable area of exploration. Finally, based on the findings of this research, future studies could aim to provide data-driven policy recommendations for educational authorities, helping to develop strategies that improve educational outcomes in Sindh and similar regions. Through these avenues, future research can build on the current study and contribute to more effective and equitable educational practices.

10. Conclusion

This study provides a comprehensive review of emerging green extraction technologies and their impact on pectin extraction from various plant sources. The findings highlight the significant advantages of technologies such as UAE, MAE, supercritical CO₂, HPP, and PEF in improving efficiency, sustainability, and quality of pectin extraction. These technologies offer notable improvements over traditional methods, including reduced extraction time, lower energy consumption, and minimized solvent usage, making them more environmentally friendly and economically viable for large-scale production. The study also emphasizes the enhancement of key rheological properties of pectin, such as gel strength, viscosity, and elasticity, which are critical for various industrial applications. Emerging technologies have been shown to produce pectin with superior functional properties, including higher gel strength and better nutritional and bioactive content, making it suitable for use in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. These methods align with the growing demand for sustainable and clean-label products. Overall, the results demonstrate that green extraction technologies not only improve the yield and quality of pectin but also contribute significantly to the sustainability of the extraction process. While challenges such as equipment costs and scalability remain, the continued optimization of these methods, combined with ongoing advancements in research and technology, will likely lead to their wider industrial adoption. The future of pectin extraction lies in the further development and integration of these sustainable technologies to meet the increasing demand for high-quality, eco-friendly, and cost-effective pectin across various sectors.

Data Availability Statement

The entire set of data supporting the results of this study was published in the article itself, because there is no DOI where the entire database is located.

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Edited by

Editor:
Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
27 June 2025
Date of issue
2025

History

Received
22 June 2024
Accepted
13 Apr 2025
Corrected
20 Oct 2025

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[2] ARIZA, J.J., BRIONES, L.M. and GARCIA, M., 2020. High-pressure processing of fruit waste for pectin extraction and valorization. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, vol. 66, pp. 102455.

[3] BASAK, S. and ANNAPURE, U.S., 2022. The potential of subcritical water as a “green” method for the extraction and modification of pectin: a critical review. Food Research International, vol. 161, pp. 111849. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111849 PMid:36192977.
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» http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114207

[6] CHENG, L., ZHANG, Y. and WANG, Y., 2018. Green extraction technologies for functional food ingredients from plant sources. Journal of Food Science, vol. 83, no. 3, pp. 547-556.

[7] CHENG, Y., XUE, F., YU, S., DU, S. and YANG, Y., 2021. Subcritical water extraction of natural products. Molecules, vol. 26, no. 13, pp. 4004. http://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26134004 PMid:34209151.
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[8] CHOUDHURY, A., SARMA, S., SARKAR, S., KUMARI, M. and DEY, B.K., 2022. Polysaccharides Obtained from Vegetables: an effective source of alternative excipient. Journal of Pharmacopuncture, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 317-325. http://doi.org/10.3831/KPI.2022.25.4.317 PMid:36628349.
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[9] CHOUDHURY, A.M., BURDETTE, J.M. and RIOS, D., 2020. Functional foods and bioactive properties of pectin: a review. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 50-60.

[10] CROOKS, K. and HADDUD, A., 2025. Using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology in the pharmaceutical supply chain: the impact on competitive advantage. Sustainability , vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 1378. http://doi.org/10.3390/su17041378
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[11] DHOTRE, I., 2025. A comprehensive review on progression and innovations in microwave assisted extraction technology for essential oils. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, vol. 100, no. 5, pp. 894-907. http://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.7823
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[12] FREITAS, C.M.P., COIMBRA, J.S.R., SOUZA, V.G.L. and SOUSA, R.C.S., 2021. Structure and applications of pectin in food, biomedical, and pharmaceutical industry: a review. Coatings, vol. 11, no. 8, pp. 922. http://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11080922
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» http://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-024-02624-7

[14] HAQUE, S.M., KABIR, A., RATEMI, E., ELZAGHEID, M., APPU, S.P., GHANI, S.S. and SARIEF, A., 2025. Greener pectin extraction techniques: applications and challenges. Separations, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 65. http://doi.org/10.3390/separations12030065
» http://doi.org/10.3390/separations12030065

[15] HASSANI, A., MALHOTRA, M., KARIM, A.V., KRISHNAN, S. and NIDHEESH, P.V., 2022. Recent progress on ultrasound-assisted electrochemical processes: A review on mechanism, reactor strategies, and applications for wastewater treatment. Environmental Research, vol. 205, pp. 112463. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112463 PMid:34856168.
» http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112463

[16] KHUBBER, S., KAZEMI, M., AMIRI SAMANI, S., LORENZO, J.M., SIMAL-GANDARA, J. and BARBA, F.J., 2023. Structural-functional variability in pectin and effect of innovative extraction methods: an integrated analysis for tailored applications. Food Reviews International, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 2352-2377. http://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.1952422
» http://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.1952422

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» http://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.580

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Raw material	Pectin (%)	Calcium pectate (%)	Extraction conditions
Mango	8.8	7.5	Citric acid at 2.0 pH, 80 °C, 5h
Citrus	25.5	24.5	Citric acid at 80 °C, 60 min, pH 1.5
Banana	2.8	2.5	95% ethanol, 0.05 M HCl, 5 min, 40 °C, 24h
Apple	12.5	10.8	80 °C, 90 min, Nitric acid (0.05 M) and 95% ethanol
Beet	34.5	32.2	Ultrasonic pretreatment/enzymatic treatment, 70% ethanol, 40 °C, 48h
Passion fruit	14.0	30.78	Electric fields (1 kV/cm), 100 °C for 3 min
Pineapple	12.0	10.0	Citric acid at pH 2.0, 90 °C, 6h
Papaya	9.5	8.7	Acidic conditions (pH 2.5), 80 °C, 2h
Pear	10.3	8.5	Microwave-assisted extraction, 75 °C, 10 min
Grapefruit	21.2	20.5	High-pressure extraction, 40 °C, 10 min
Apricot	16.8	15.0	Ethanol 70%, 85 °C, 4h
Kiwi	13.0	12.0	Microwave-assisted extraction, 90 °C, 15 min
Mango peel	9.1	8.0	Ultrasonic-assisted extraction, 60 °C, 30 min
Orange	20.5	18.0	Hot water extraction, 95 °C, 1.5h
Carrot	10.5	9.7	Enzyme-assisted extraction, 50 °C, 12h
Pomegranate	15.0	13.5	Ohmic heating, 75 °C, 20 min
Tomato	7.6	6.5	Supercritical CO₂ extraction, 35 MPa, 40 °C, 60 min
Cherry	11.2	9.0	Subcritical water extraction, 120 °C, 30 min
Cucumber	8.7	7.3	Microwave-assisted extraction, 80 °C, 20 min
Strawberry	9.8	8.3	Pulsed electric field, 1 kV/cm, 80 °C for 10 min
Avocado	7.0	6.0	Cold water extraction with acidic medium, pH 3.5, 24h

Emerging technology	Advantages	Disadvantages/Limitations	References
Ultrasound-assisted extraction	Reduces extraction time	Requires precise control over frequency and power to avoid degradation of pectin	Nasir et al. (2024)
	Increases yield due to better cell disruption	Scalability can be an issue due to equipment costs
	Low solvent usage and environmentally friendly	High initial investment for equipment
Microwave-assisted extraction	Rapid heating leads to faster extraction	Requires uniform distribution of microwaves to prevent uneven heating	Lozano Pérez et al. (2024)
	Improves yield and preserves pectin quality	May require additional pretreatment steps
	Energy-efficient compared to conventional methods	May cause thermal degradation if not controlled
Supercritical CO₂ extraction	Provides high-purity pectin	High operational costs due to pressure and temperature control requirements	Yildirim et al. (2024)
	Environmentally friendly (no solvents used)	Requires specialized equipment and expertise
	Suitable for high-value applications like functional foods	High energy consumption for maintaining supercritical conditions
Pulsed electric fields	Increases pectin yield with minimal use of solvents	Requires high voltage, which may increase operational costs	Meneses-Espinosa et al. (2024)
	Short extraction times, improving process efficiency	Requires consistent electrode setup and maintenance
	Non-thermal, preserving the quality of pectin	Limited scalability in large-scale applications
High-pressure processing	Reduces extraction time and solvent usage	High capital investment in high-pressure equipment	Sharma and Chauhan (2025)
	Preserves the functional properties of pectin	Requires precise pressure control, making it difficult to scale
	Environmentally sustainable (uses water as solvent)	High energy consumption during pressure application
Radio frequency	Fast and uniform heating, improving extraction efficiency	Requires expensive and complex equipment for consistent RF application	Crooks and Haddud (2025)
	Suitable for high-volume extractions	Potential non-uniform heating at large scales
	Environmentally friendly with reduced solvent use	Requires continuous monitoring and precise control of RF energy
Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation	Faster than conventional extraction	Requires careful control of microwave power to avoid degradation	Dhotre (2025)
	High yield with minimal solvent use	May cause uneven extraction if not carefully managed
	Can be used with both fresh and dried materials	Not easily scalable for industrial applications
Enzymatic treatment	Specificity for pectin without affecting other components	Slow process and require optimization for each plant source	Younas et al. (2021)
	Improves yield and quality of pectin	High cost of enzymes and need for optimization of enzyme concentration
	Eco-friendly and uses minimal solvent	Limited application for certain types of plant material
Subcritical water extraction	High yield and environmentally friendly	Requires high temperature and pressure, increasing energy demand	Cheng et al. (2021)
	Preserves functional properties of pectin	Requires sophisticated equipment for pressure control
	Fast process with low solvent usage	Limited by the type of plant material that can be used

PIO Category	Keywords
Population	“Emerging processing technologies” OR “Pectin extraction” OR “Emerging technologies in pectin extraction” OR “Green technologies for pectin extraction” OR “Sustainable pectin extraction methods” OR “Plant-based pectin extraction”
Intervention	“Ultrasound” OR “Ohmic heating” OR “Supercritical CO2” OR “Pulsed electric field” OR “High-pressure processing” OR “Radio frequency” OR “Microwave” OR “Subcritical water” OR “Enzymatic treatment” OR “Microwave-assisted extraction” OR “High-temperature extraction” OR “Electromagnetic field processing”
Outputs	“Yield” OR “Key process parameters” OR “Pectin properties” OR “Gel strength” OR “Viscosity” OR “Degree of esterification” OR “Nutritional properties” OR “Functional properties” OR “Prebiotic effects” OR “Environmental impact” OR “Energy efficiency” OR “Solvent usage” OR “Waste reduction” OR “Cost-effectiveness” OR “Rheological properties” OR “Extracted pectin quality”

Criteria	Details
Language	Articles published in English, Spanish, and Portuguese.
Publication Year	Articles published within the last 5 years (from 2018 onward).
Content Relevance	Studies must focus on the extraction of pectin using emerging technologies and include detailed methodology on the extraction process.
Study Type	Original research, case studies, or experimental studies containing data on yield, rheological properties, or other key characteristics of pectin.
Technological Focus	Studies focusing on green technologies for pectin extraction, such as ultrasound, microwave, supercritical CO₂, pulsed electric fields, and high-pressure processing.

Criteria	Details
Irrelevant content	Articles that focus on medical, agronomic, or environmental topics unrelated to pectin extraction technologies.
Lack of pectin extraction procedure	Studies that do not provide detailed extraction procedures or technologies involved in pectin extraction.
Review articles	Review articles or meta-analyses that do not present original experimental data.
Outdated research	Studies were published more than 5 years ago (prior to 2018).
Inadequate methodology or data	Studies with insufficient data or methodological details on the extraction process or pectin properties.
Irrelevant technologies	Studies focusing on traditional extraction methods (e.g., acid extraction, boiling) rather than emerging technologies.

Extraction technology	Key process parameters	Main mechanisms involved	References
Ultrasound	Frequency (kHz), Power (W), Temperature (°C), Time (min)	Sonic waves lead to microbubble formation and penetration into the cell structure, enhancing diffusion and mass transfer.	Hassani et al. (2022)
Ohmic heating	Voltage (V/cm), Temperature (°C), pH	Volumetric, fast, and uniform heating.	Ramos-Ramos et al. (2025)
Supercritical CO₂	Pressure (Pa), Temperature (°C), Diffusivity (m²/s), Solvent flow (ml/min), Time (min)	High extraction rates, good transport qualities, and ease of diffusion through solid materials.	Li et al. (2025)
Pulsed electric field	Voltage (kV), Amperage (A), Watts (W)	Formation of pores through the cell membrane, improving mass transfer.	Brito and Silva, (2024)
High pressure processing	Pressure (Pa), Temperature (°C), Time (min)	Uniform and rapid distribution of pressure releases the pectin.	Saleena et al. (2024)
Radiofrequency	Angular frequency (Ω), Frequency (kHz), Power (W), Temperature (°C)	Strong increase in intracellular temperature/pressure, greater GalA uptake capacity, improved thermal stability.	Narayana and Saleem, (2024)
Microwave	Power (W), Temperature (°C), Time (min)	Rapid heating leads to the displacement of polar molecules that form dipole rotations.	Valverde et al. (2024)
Subcritical water	Pressure (Pa), Temperature (°C), Time (min)	High pressure facilitates water molecule penetration into plant cell tissues.	Hamzah et al. (2024)

Advancements in green extraction technologies for pectin enhancing efficiency, sustainability, and functional properties: a systematic review

Avanços em tecnologias de extração verde para pectina, aumentando a eficiência, a sustentabilidade e as propriedades funcionais: uma revisão sistemática

Abstract

Resumo

1. Introduction

2. Need for Emerging Extraction Technologies

3. Rheological Properties of Pectin

4. Industrial Applications and Potential

5. Materials and Methods

5.1. Pectin processing

5.2. Extraction of pectin from various plant sources

5.3. Innovative approaches to improve pectin extraction

6. Methodology

6.1. Kind of investigation

6.2. Research design

6.3. Selection of databases

6.4. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

6.5. Analysis method

6.6. Population and sample size

6.7. Data collection techniques

6.8. Qualitative analysis and data extraction

7. Results

7.1. Novel green extraction methods for pectin

7.2. Ultrasound-assisted extraction

7.3. Ohmic heating

7.4. Supercritical CO2 extraction

7.5. Pulsed electric fields

7.6. High-pressure processing

7.7. Radio frequency and microwave-assisted extraction

7.8. Subcritical water extraction

7.9. Key process parameters and mechanisms

7.10. Rheological properties of pectin extracted through various methods

7.11. Gel strength

7.12. Viscosity

7.13. Elasticity and functional properties

7.14. Degree of esterification

7.15. Practical applications of these technologies across industrial sectors

7.16. Food industry

7.17. Pharmaceutical Industry

7.18. Cosmetic industry

8. Discussion

9. Future Research Direction

10. Conclusion

Data Availability Statement

References

Edited by

Publication Dates

History

7.4. Supercritical CO₂ extraction