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Original Article • Braz. J. Biol. 85 • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.296151 linkcopy

Open-access Overview of the discus fish (Symphysodon spp.): narrative review combined with potential for ornamental aquaculture

Visão geral do peixe disco (Symphysodon spp.): revisão narrativa combinada com potencial para aquicultura ornamental

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

The discus fish (Symphysodon spp.) is an Amazonian cichlid species with great appeal in the ornamental fish market due to its characteristic shape, coloration, and behavior. This study aims to conduct a narrative review of the discus fish. In the wild, discus fish are found in acidic waters with low levels of nitrogen compounds and warm waters. Despite being a well-known species among aquarium hobbyists, large-scale breeding is still considered difficult and surrounded by myths about the species, discouraging the interest of professional breeders. This work contributes information on the general biology of a group of Amazonian fishes with ornamental importance. Therefore, it is important for the knowledge of aquarists, producers, exporters, scientists, students, and public agencies that regulate the use of this fish, which constitutes an essential component of the Amazonian aquatic fauna.

Keywords:
discus fish; ornamental fish; cichlid; aquarism

Resumo

O peixe-disco (Symphysodon spp.) é uma espécie de ciclídeo amazônico com grande apelo no mercado de peixes ornamentais devido à sua forma, coloração e comportamento característicos. Este estudo tem como objetivo realizar uma revisão narrativa sobre o peixe-disco. Na natureza, o peixe-disco é encontrado em águas ácidas, com baixos níveis de compostos nitrogenados e águas mornas. Apesar de ser uma espécie bem conhecida entre os aquaristas, a reprodução em larga escala ainda é considerada difícil e cercada de mitos sobre a espécie, desestimulando o interesse de criadores profissionais. Este trabalho contribui com informações sobre a biologia geral de um grupo de peixes amazônicos com importância ornamental. Portanto, é importante para o conhecimento de aquaristas, produtores, exportadores, cientistas, estudantes e órgãos públicos que regulamentam o uso deste peixe, que constitui um componente essencial da fauna aquática amazônica.

Palavras-chave:
peixe disco; peixe ornamental; ciclídeo; aquarismo

1. Introduction

According to Tribuzy-Neto et al. (2021), between 2006 and 2015, 375 species of ornamental fish were exported, with a significant portion going to European countries (Germany, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Spain), Asian countries (China, Singapore, and Indonesia), and the United States, which are currently the largest consumers. However, being an extractive and rustic activity by today's standards, the commercialization of Amazonian ornamental fish has been losing competitiveness in the international market (Santos and Fujimoto, 2012; Tribuzy-Neto et al., 2021).

With the new Normative Instruction No. 10 of April 17, 2020, established by the Brazilian government (BRASIL, 2020), there was a new legal framework for ornamental fish, replacing the old list of 725 permitted species with a negative list of prohibited species, facilitating the trade of ornamental fish and streamlining the process of selling and shipping fish for ornamental purposes. The states of Amazonas and Pará stand out as the primary sources of fish traded in the regional, national, and international markets (SECEX, 2017). Therefore, it is possible to affirm that the aquarium market is one of the most promising sectors for aquaculture, combined with the national pet market (Vidigal, 2016; ABINPET, 2022).

In the state of Amazonas, the exploitation and sale of ornamental fish have been taking place for over six decades, mainly concentrated along the middle Rio Negro basin, which boasts a great diversity of fish and constitutes the largest ornamental fishery area in Brazil (Santos et al., 2012, 2022, 2025a, 2025b; Prang et al., 2013; Lemos et al., 2015; Magro et al., 2016; Ladislau et al., 2020, 2021; Oliveira et al., 2015a, 2015b, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2021, 2023, 2025; Ribeiro et al., 2021, 2024, 2025; Mattos et al., 2021; Andrade et al., 2024, 2025). This activity plays an important economic, environmental, and social role, providing employment and income generation for riverside communities (Prang et al., 2013; Tribuzy-Neto et al., 2021; Ladislau et al., 2021).

Among the species of Amazonian fish, cichlids, characterized by a divided lateral line and spines in the dorsal and anal fins, stand out in the global ornamental trade due to their beauty, diverse body coloration patterns, territorial behavior, and good adaptation to cultivation systems (Selvatici et al., 2017). These animals have trophic and survival adaptations, inhabiting areas with abundant decomposing plant material, rapids, dense submerged vegetation, floodplain lakes, whitewater rivers (nutrient-rich with neutral pH), and blackwater rivers (nutrient-poor with acidic pH) (Lowe-McConell, 1999).

Some species of cichlids are easily maintained under confinement conditions, making them of great interest for ornamental fishing and presenting significant potential for national aquaculture (Selvatici et al., 2017). Therefore, it is essential to understand the biological aspects of commercially important species to develop protocols of good management practices that can contribute to maintaining organic balance and, consequently, animal welfare (Gauy et al., 2018; Solomon-Lane and Hofmann, 2019).

Among these commercially traded cichlid species, the discus fish Symphysodon spp. stands out, being widely used as an ornamental fish due to its body coloration pattern and behavioral characteristics (Tribuzy-Neto et al., 2021; Jesus et al., 2022). Hence, it presents excellent interest for production and economic viability in ornamental aquaculture. Given the above, this study aims to conduct a narrative review on the discus fish Symphysodon spp.

2. Diversity, Behavior, and Reproduction

Symphysodon spp. is a genus of Neotropical cichlid characterized by a disc-shaped body, 12 to 20 cm in standard length and 25 cm in height in adulthood; small mouth, does not present apparent sexual dimorphism, feeding on small fish, live worms, and microcrustacean nauplii; batch spawning; biparental care; and inhabiting streams, lakes, and riverbanks (Rossoni et al., 2014; Jesus et al., 2022) with water temperature ranging between 26 to 30°C (Riehl and Baensch, 1991). It is now understood that the Symphysodon genus comprises three distinct species: S. aequifasciatus, S. discus, and S. tarzoo, along with other subspecies (Bleher et al., 2007; Amado et al., 2011).

In their natural environment, discus fish form large shoals near fallen trees and branches during the dry season and small shoals within flooded forests during the wet season (Crampton 2008). According to Celik et al. (2008), Symphysodon species require the maintenance of stable water parameters, as factors such as pH, conductivity, and hardness are essential in the commercial breeding of discus fish.

Crampton (2008) suggests that discus fish are iteroparous, reaching sexual maturity within a year, with spawning starting at the beginning of the flood season, influenced by changes in water conductivity. This reproductive strategy indicates a concern for ensuring that the offspring mature by the next dry season. In this sense, spawning is influenced by biotic parameters (such as high predation on eggs, larvae, and young adults) and local and regional environmental dynamics (such as sudden increases in river water levels, locally known as “repiques”). Thus, it can be affirmed that females spawn only one batch of eggs at a time, with the most developed ones being released, while the rest are held back in case of high predation on eggs, larvae, or fry (Rossoni et al., 2014).

According to Chellappa et al. (2005), S. discus specie exhibit social organization based on dominance hierarchy and territoriality, involving competitions for mates and spawning areas and elaborate courtship and mating behaviors (Figure 1). The social hierarchy is established through aggressive interactions, with conflicts typically starting with low-intensity, energetically economical behavioral units performed at a greater distance between the animals, such as displays, and escalating to more costly behavioral units completed at closer proximity, such as threats (Maan et al., 2001). Attacks and chases usually occur in the final stages of conflicts and contribute to their resolution, which occurs after reaching high levels of escalation and when one of the opponents gives up the conflict (Teresa and Gonçalves-de-Freitas, 2003; Mattos et al., 2016, 2021, 2024).

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Figure 1
Social hierarchy is established through aggressive interactions.

Female discus fish choose more significant partners and defend territories of better quality (Rossoni et al., 2014; Mattos et al., 2016). During courtship and mating, females approach dominant males with territories that offer more resources (Mattos et al., 2016). Mattos et al. (2016) also describe the reproductive behavior of S. aequifasciatus in the following behavioral units: female staying in the male's territory, substrate cleaning before spawning, spawning, egg aeration, parental care division, substrate cleaning after hatching, and changes in male and female body coloration. As the larvae develop, they swim erratically and may move away from the territory/substrate. In general, discus larvae exhibit characteristics similar to those of other cichlid species and are altricial, meaning that when the larvae start swimming, they already have all functional structures (Önal et al., 2010; Mattos et al., 2015).

During this parental care phase, the pair displays darker coloration, which may be related to negative phototaxis behavior, meaning that discus larvae are attracted to darker objects, and the coloration of adults can serve as guidance toward the substrate. Parental care is carried out by both parents and is characterized by defending the offspring and feeding the larvae with mucus produced by the couple's bodies (Chong et al., 2005; Khong et al., 2009; Wen et al., 2020).

Buckley et al. (2009) suggest that parental care occurs equally for both males and females during this phase. As the offspring consume parental mucus and bites, the exchange between parents increases the frequency of parental care shifts, with no significant difference between males and females. The mucus provided at this stage presents interesting peculiarities; studies in this regard have observed that when parents are caring for the offspring, the mucus exhibits different protein concentrations and even differences between sexes, providing a source of immunity, nutrition, and hormones essential for the survival of the offspring in the acidic and ion-poor Amazon environment.

This peculiarity suggests that the discus fish exhibits similarities in parental care to that of mammals and birds, demonstrating a high level of complexity in its unique behavioral repertoire (Buckley et al., 2009). Understanding such peculiarities can guide professional breeders, as it is understood that offspring require adequate nutrition during this critical phase. Based on this requirement, artificial mucus with these properties can be provided, increasing the efficiency of artificial breeding. While natural mucus is essential for the survival and growth of the offspring, it can also be a source of contaminants and parasites from the parentes (Maunder et al., 2013; Sylvain and Derome, 2017), making artificial mucus an alternative in captive production.

3. Taxonomy

The genus Symphysodon, classified as teleostei, belongs to the order Cichliformes and the family Cichlidae, and had a confusing taxonomic classification. Until 2006, it was understood that there were two species recognized in scientific literature: Symphysodon discus Heckel, 1840, and Symphysodon aequifasciatus Pellegrin, 1904 (Kullander, 1986, 1996), and four subspecies in popular literature: S. discus willischwartzi Burgess, 1981 (pineapple phenotype), S. discus tarzoo Lyons, 1959 (green phenotype), S. aequifasciatus haraldi Schultz, 1960 (blue phenotype), and S. aequifasciatus axelrodi Schultz, 1960 (brown phenotype), with the nominal subspecies S. discus discus Heckel, 1840 (Heckel phenotype), and S. aequifasciatus aequifasciatus Pellegrin, 1904 (green phenotype), being restricted to just one central phenotype (Amado et al., 2011).

Revisions in 2007 suggest the existence of three species in the genus Symphysodon: Symphysodon discus Heckel, 1840, Symphysodon aequifasciatus Pellegrin, 1904, and Symphysodon haraldi Schultz, 1960 (Bleher et al., 2007), with new revisions in 2011 understanding Symphysodon to comprise five significant evolutionary units: S. discus (Heckel and pineapple phenotypes), S. aequifasciatus (brown phenotype), S. tarzoo (green phenotype), Symphysodon sp. 1 (blue phenotype), and Symphysodon sp. 2 (Xingu group) (Amado et al., 2011).

Morphological and molecular analyses suggest a phylogenetic relationship of Symphysodon with Uaru, Heros, Mesonauta, and Pterophyllum (Amado et al., 2011). Analyses of discus fish diversification indicate that the species is undergoing diversification, with taxonomic classification remaining controversial (Farias and Hrbek, 2008; Silva et al., 2008; Gross et al., 2010) (Table 1). Such diversity helps us understand the requirements regarding habitat water parameters such as pH and conductivity.

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Table 1
Common names and taxonomic classification of discus fish modified from (Livengood et al., 2010).

Another genetic peculiarity of this genus reveals that males and females express genes from their testes and ovaries differently. This difference can be very efficient in captive breeding, especially considering the species does not present apparent sexual dimorphism (Lin et al., 2017). The use of genetic tools can be highly effective in selecting breeding stock.

Gross et al. (2009) suggest that S. discus is the oldest species, which could have hybridized with an ancestral species of discus that may now be extinct, helping us understand that crossings between species occur naturally in the natural environment. Understanding this supports the assertion that the discus fish is not a fragile species; on the contrary, due to its genetic diversity, it exhibits plasticity in responding to changes in the physicochemical properties of water, favoring its adaptation to artificial cultivation environments (Gross et al., 2009).

4. Physiology

Similar to other Amazonian cichlids, the discus fish exhibits significant adaptability because the Amazonian environment undergoes constant changes due to its different seasonal periods. In this sense, the discus fish adapts to moderate hypoxia conditions, where the heart undergoes suppression of oxidative metabolism, followed by activation of anaerobic glycolysis, as observed by Chippari-Gomes et al. (2005) (Figure 2). They also suggest that such adaptation is related to its habitat preference, as it favors well-oxygenated areas.

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Figure 2
Metabolic adaptability of discus fish under low oxygen conditions.

Studies focused on exposure to low pH have demonstrated that S. discus is more tolerant to acidic waters, being more efficient in maintaining ionic balance under acidic and ion-poor conditions (Duarte et al., 2013). This observation aligns with what breeders have empirically noted, that S. discus requires acidic water in its management.

Another peculiarity of discus physiology is its resistance to temperature-related oxidative stress. Jin et al. (2021) observed a specific thermal resistance of the species. Their experiments involving temperature reduction in two discus species (S. haraldi found in the central region of the Amazon basin - Manacapuru River, and S. aequifasciatus found in the western region of the Amazon basin - Tefé River) determined that S. haraldi exhibits more excellent resistance to temperature reduction than S. aequifasciatus. Depending on the geographical area and speciation, different discus species may show distinct responses and tolerance to thermal stress (Wen et al., 2018a; Jin et al., 2021). In this regard, it is understood that a widely spread notion among discus breeders that discus fish must be kept at 28°C is inaccurate. Discus fish have a wide range of thermal tolerance, capable of modifying metabolic pathways for physiological regulation in response to cold stress or temperature changes (Wen et al., 2018b). However, being a tropical cichlid, they prefer warm waters.

The discus fish is also well-known for its striking coloration. There are various colors both in wild specimens and hybrids. Recent studies have observed that discus coloration is linked to its metabolism. Yang et al. (2021) found that discus fish have specific chromophores in the skin associated with metabolic pathways. This is particularly interesting when related to behavioral displays observed in discus fish. A notable color change occurs when the fish is stressed or shows signs of illness. Such results aid in understanding the composition of body coloration and even discus behavior (Ng et al., 2023).

Studies on blood parameters demonstrate that discus fish naturally have a low number of monocytes and neutrophils, indicating that discus fish have lower resistance to pathogens than other cichlids (Paixão et al., 2017). This suggests that discus breeders face challenges, as these animals are prone to illness in captivity. However, it is not necessarily that the species is more fragile than others, but rather, it is more related to improper handling and prolonged stress during capture and management (Rossoni et al., 2014; Paixão et al., 2017).

5. Diseases

Among the ailments affecting discus fish, the most common are those caused by gill parasites, such as (Sciadicleithrum spp.) monogeneans, protozoa (Hexamita intestinalis) hole-in-the-head disease, (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis), and bacteria, mainly of the genus Aeromonas, as well as other intestinal parasites (Paull and Matthews, 2001; Yanong et al., 2004; Moravec and Laoprasert, 2008; Guz and Szczepaniak, 2009; Hooman et al., 2010; Onal et al., 2011; Aquaro et al., 2012; Mohammadi et al., 2012; El-Ghany et al., 2014; Košuthova et al., 2015; Roh et al., 2019; Amesberger-Freitag et al., 2019; Satora et al., 2022).

Parasites, combined with inadequate feed and water quality management, favor the emergence of diseases and loss of productivity due to discus fish's reduced resistance to pathogens, leading to the loss of entire flocks. It is noteworthy that the lack of specialized literature on pathogens and disease control for this species exacerbates the problem (Yanong et al., 2004; El-Ghany et al., 2014).

Trials conducted by El-Ghany and colleagues (2014) with two chemotherapeutic agents and physical management indicate the effectiveness of metronidazole against a mixed infection of flagellated protozoa. According to the study, when tested with 5 ppm of metronidazole for 12 hours, for 3 days, with 50% water changes before medication administration each day, the animals recovered from the infection within 2 weeks after treatment, with complete disappearance of clinical signs. For Group 2, treated with ciprofloxacin (5 ppm for 5 days and 50% water changes before medication administration), it was observed that they did not fully recover from the infection, and two weeks after treatment, the mortality rate was 50% of the fish.

The treatment results indicated that the physical-chemical management with metronidazole and partial water changes effectively overcame parasitic and bacterial infections, with no morbidity and mortality after two weeks (El-Ghany et al., 2014). It is worth noting that it is not only the use of chemotherapeutic agents that will combat such diseases; the water is naturally inhabited by bacteria, fungi, and omnipresent parasites, and any stress factors can cause diseases in fish (El-Ghany et al., 2014; Paixão et al., 2017).

Studies on managing discus stocks raised in captivity demonstrate that sanitary control of stocks is fundamental. Aquaro et al. (2012) observed infestation of Dactylogyridae due to improper management, as young animals were kept with adults, which ended up infesting them, as the adults were asymptomatic about the parasite, leading to significant losses. Therefore, physical management and chemical treatment should be applied if the disease becomes established (El-Ghany et al., 2014).

6. Nutrition

In their natural environment, discus fish feed on small crustaceans, insect larvae, periphyton, and algae (Crampton, 2008; Rossoni et al., 2014; Jesus et al., 2022) (Figure 3). Therefore, in a captive environment, a balanced and varied diet can promote good production and health of these animals.

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Figure 3
Main foods of discus fish in their natural habitat.

From their larval stage, discus fish require a diet rich in protein. Studies on the feeding of offspring indicate that parents, during the parental care phase, alter the protein composition of the mucus, indicating the need for diets with high protein concentrations (Khong et al., 2009; Buckley et al., 2010; Wen et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021). Studies involving the inclusion of probiotics in the diet of young individuals demonstrate enhanced fish immunity (Sanaya, 2022), indicating the need for diets rich in proteins and amino acids, considering that discus fish are susceptible to low immunity under stress.

In this regard, protein-rich diets can pose challenges for breeders as they increase production costs in captivity. However, plant-based diets consisting of soybean and wheat flour can be efficient for the nutrition of the animals (Chong et al., 2002). Along with an efficient protein diet, the addition of vitamins C and E, natural carotenoids (such as astaxanthin), and minerals can be adequate for growth, improved immunity, and coloration of discus fish (Liu et al., 2016, 2019, 2021; Song et al., 2017). Studies on protein requirements determine a crude protein diet ranging from 44.9 to 50.1% (beef heart). Therefore, a diet rich in animal protein should be included in the feeding of these animals, with both dry and moist feeds being effective for captive breeding (Chong et al., 2000; Sales and Janssens, 2003; Wen et al., 2018a, 2018b; Santos et al., 2022).

7. Water Quality

Discus fish also require excellent water quality (Celik et al., 2008). In this regard, breeders worldwide invest in sophisticated filtration systems. Like other fish species, discus fish need good water and stable parameters (Celik et al., 2008). Therefore, the aquarist or breeder must understand how aquatic systems function. In Amazonian aquatic systems, soft water with low salt content is observed, high oxygenation, no nitrogenous compounds, and low-temperature variation (Lowe-McConell, 1999; Crampton, 2008; Celik et al., 2008). Thus, discus fish require similarity in parameters in an artificial environment.

Due to its presence in different Amazonian environments, discus fish exhibit a certain plasticity regarding parameters, with a pH tolerance range between 4.5 to 7 (Duarte et al., 2013), showing good adaptability in slightly acidic water (pH 6.8) in artificial environments (Celik et al., 2008). However, in static systems with low water renewal, pH levels close to neutral or even slightly alkaline can lead to the accumulation of nitrogenous compounds, potentially causing stress and even mortality, as discus fish have a low tolerance to high concentrations of ammonia and nitrite in the water (Celik et al., 2008).

In this sense, breeding systems for discus fish should be designed to provide a stable environment with minimal water quality variation and the least possible amount of nitrogenous compounds (Din et al., 2002; Livengood et al., 2010; Celik et al., 2008; Kristiany and Prabowo, 2022), which can be static recirculation systems, provided there are good water exchange regimes and proper management.

8. Market and Production

Discus fish are sought after by all aquarium enthusiasts due to their coloration, shape, peaceful behavior, and high value. However, their captive production is challenging (Din et al., 2002; Livengood et al., 2010; Kristiany and Prabowo, 2022), as they are captured in different environments where the water is acidic, black, and clear with a pH of 5 or below, as well as poor in nutrients, and also in white waters with pH close to neutral. Thus, it can be very challenging for breeders to provide a favorable environment for reproduction (Riehl and Baensch, 1991; Crampton, 2008; Livengood et al., 2010; Farias and Hrbek, 2008; Gross et al., 2009; Rossoni et al., 2014).

The larviculture of the species in captivity becomes another challenge in production because these animals exhibit parental care, with the larvae being dependent on the initial feeding provided by the parents (Rossoni et al., 2014; Mattos et al., 2016). Additionally, there are no significant differences between males and females, making choosing and selecting breeding stock difficult (Livengood et al., 2010). Despite these difficulties, Asian countries such as China, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand have excelled in producing this species (Din et al., 2002).

In the quest for large-scale production, breeders have used different breeding systems, from closed systems to recirculation systems (in aquariums), considering the species' requirement for high water quality. Recirculation systems have proven to be efficient in breeding (Din et al., 2002; Livengood et al., 2010; Kristiany and Prabowo, 2022). Different strategies to encourage spawning are employed by breeders, such as significant water changes, temperature increase, slight pH reduction, and use of deionized and reverse osmosis water (Livengood et al., 2010; Celik et al., 2008). However, there is still no definitive protocol for discus fish reproduction, so each producer uses their reproductive management, causing confusion and the creation of myths around discus fish production in captivity.

Regarding economic value, discus fish are among the top 10 species for the ornamental fish trade (Livengood et al., 2010). Their price in the aquarium market can reach a high value in the foreign market, ranging from $50 to $170 per unit depending on the variant, commercially classified by the consumer market as royal, semi-royal, or typical (Figure 4) (Livengood et al., 2010; Anjos et al., 2009; Rossoni et al., 2014; Tribuzy-Neto et al., 2021; Jesus et al., 2022).

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Figure 4
Classification commonly used by traders. (A) Royal; (B) Semi-royal; (C) Common.

Its importance has been observed in the numbers recorded between 2006 and 2015, with exports accounting for 0.16% of all ornamental fish exports from Brazil (Tribuzy-Neto et al., 2021). Unlike other producing countries such as China, Thailand, Singapore, the USA, and Germany, Brazil only exports wild specimens because it does not have significant captive production, failing to meet domestic demand.

9. Perspectives

Looking at national production, it's clear we need to improve. We haven't yet fully mastered the breeding and larval culture of this species, which means it doesn't attract the interest of professional breeders. This is due to a lack of scientific information. Although we have several studies on discus fish, these studies remain restricted to academia and receive little visibility.

In recent years, the discus fish market has grown in Brazil. Interest in high-quality wild and hybrid specimens has attracted the attention of national breeders and aquarists. With the growth of social media, groups and forums dedicated to discus fish breeding have fueled interest and stimulated the consumer market. Currently, Brazil has the Brazilian Discus Fish Confederation (CBRAD), which, in partnership with the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), organizes exhibition competitions for national breeders and aquarists, facilitating outreach activities between academia and the producer market. This has strengthened the hobby and fostered interest in the activity. However, we still lack information and educational materials for breeders and aquarists. Nutrition, diseases, and pathogens, as well as reproduction and larval culture, have proven to be fundamental bottlenecks for production. Universities and research institutes can provide scientifically based materials and language appropriate for this audience. Through easily accessible pamphlets, technical notes, and booklets, the need for reliable information about this species, which sparks interest among aquarists and breeders worldwide, can be met.

10. Conclusion

Among the Amazonian species with ornamental interest, the discus fish is an excellent candidate for large-scale production. However, its larviculture remains a bottleneck for most commercial breeders. With research focused on reproduction, nutrition, and health, developing an appropriate and replicable management protocol is possible. Due to the prices practiced in the ornamental fish market, investment in aquaculture technologies and systems is favorable for the commercial production of this species, considered the king of aquariums.

Acknoledgements

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas (FAPEAM, PDPG Project CAPES/FAPEAM Notice No. 018/2020 and NOTICE No. 020/2024 - PRODUCTIVITY IN STATEMENTS AND INVESTMENT).

Data availability statement

The research data analyzed in this study are not publicly available by any means.

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Edited by

  • Editor:
    Elisabeth Henschel

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    20 Oct 2025
  • Date of issue
    2025

History

  • Received
    20 Apr 2025
  • Accepted
    09 Aug 2025
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