Brazil
Brazilian Journal of Biology
Table of contents previous current next
Table of contents
Original Article • Braz. J. Biol. 85 • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.294485 linkcopy

Open-access Effects of chlorpyrifos and acephate on the web-building behavior of Argiope trifasciata

Efeitos do clorpirifós e do acefato no comportamento de construção de teias de Argiope trifasciata

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Traditionally, various agricultural practices are used to increase agricultural yield along with insecticides. Excessive utilization of insecticides in crops has harmful effects on natural predators by reducing their efficiency as biological control agents. In this study, the harmful effects of insecticides such as chlorpyrifos and acephate on the web-building behavior of Argiope trifasciata were observed with different concentrations and time gaps. The mortality rate of spiders was also recorded; for example, 30% mortality was observed after exposure to field-rate concentration of acephate, while 20% and 5% mortality were observed after exposure to intermediate and half-field concentrations of acephate, respectively. Similarly, 50% mortality was observed at field-rate concentration of chlorpyrifos. However, 20% and 10% mortality were observed after the application of chlorpyrifos at intermediate and half-field concentrations, respectively. Both insecticides maximally influenced the web parameters after 72 h of exposure at field-rate concentration. However, chlorpyrifos adversely affected the web parameters compared to acephate.

Keywords:
insecticides; spiders; chlorpyrifos; acephate; mortality; field rate concentration; biological control

Resumo

Tradicionalmente, diversas práticas agrícolas são utilizadas para aumentar a produtividade agrícola, juntamente com inseticidas. O uso excessivo de inseticidas nas lavouras tem efeitos nocivos sobre predadores naturais, reduzindo sua eficiência como agentes de controle biológico. Neste estudo, os efeitos nocivos de inseticidas como clorpirifós e acefato no comportamento de construção de teias de Argiope trifasciata foram observados com diferentes concentrações e intervalos de tempo. A taxa de mortalidade das aranhas também foi registrada; por exemplo, observou-se 30% de mortalidade após exposição à concentração de acefato em campo, enquanto 20% e 5% de mortalidade foram observados após exposição a concentrações intermediárias e de meio campo de acefato, respectivamente. Da mesma forma, 50% de mortalidade foi observada na concentração de clorpirifós em campo. Entretanto, foram observadas mortalidade de 20% e 10% após a aplicação de clorpirifós em concentrações intermediárias e de meio campo, respectivamente. Ambos os inseticidas influenciaram ao máximo os parâmetros da teia após 72 horas de exposição na concentração de campo. No entanto, o clorpirifós afetou negativamente os parâmetros da teia em comparação com o acefato.

Palavras-chave:
inseticidas; aranhas; clorpirifós; acefato; mortalidade; taxa de concentração de campo; controle biológico

1. Introduction

Agriculture is a fundamental and essential component of Pakistan's economy (Shahid et al., 2023). It serves as the backbone of the economy, contributing nearly 21% to the country's GDP (Baig et al., 2009; Pakistan, 2014-2015). However, rice production faces significant challenges due to infestations by various insect pests. While approximately 300 pest species attack rice crops at different growth stages, only 23 of these species cause substantial harm (Seni and Naik, 2017). To enhance crop yields, pesticides are extensively used in agribusiness to eliminate these pests. However, their application also affects other organisms within the biological control system and contributes to environmental pollution (Lagerkvist et al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2019; Tudi et al., 2021; Hussain and Tanveer, 2023). The long-term, uncontrolled use of pesticides has resulted in several ecological issues, such as increased resistance in pests, a surge in secondary insect populations, and a decline in beneficial natural enemies of pests (Sherawat et al., 2015).

Insects are largest group (Panhwar, 2022), while arthropods make up two-thirds of the animal community, and spiders rank seventh in diversity. Spider diversity includes 46,438 species under 3,905 genera belonging to 114 families. Spider diversity and abundance depend on both abiotic and biotic factors in the environment, such as temperature, humidity, shelter, seasonal changes, vegetation, and prey availability. This diversity is also influenced by anthropogenic activities such as overpopulation, the use of different pesticides, and urbanization (Suana, 2005; Foelix, 2011; Faiz, 2022). Spider diversity and their predatory effects in rice and brassica fields have been documented by different researchers (Tahir and Butt, 2008; Mukhtar et al., 2012). Orb-weavers belong to the family Araneidae and rank third in spider diversity (3,122 species and 172 genera) and are cosmopolitan in nature. Orb-web weavers have three claws, are large in size, have bright coloration, are totally polyphagous carnivores, and build spiral wheel-shaped webs in crops, forests, gardens, and grasslands (Levi et al., 2002).

Orb-web spiders feed on all stages of prey, playing a vital role in controlling pest populations of aphids, parasites, and lepidopteran species in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) (Marc & Canard, 1997; Lene Sigsgaard, 2000; Pekár, 2012; Solanki and Kumar, 2015). As very good friends of farmers, they are also good biological indicators (Marc et al., 1999; Pearce and Venier, 2006). Silk spiders have economic importance, and Pakistan is very rich in spider fauna (Butt and Beg, 2000, 2001; Ghafoor and Beg, 2002; Mukhtar and Mushtaq, 2005; Sebastian and Peter, 2009; Hennawy, 2009; Ursani and Soomro, 2010; Tahir et al., 2011). Pesticides affect the behavior of web construction, leading to an unequal number of spirals and radii, which minimize the efficiency of prey catching (Albin et al., 2014; Saba et al., 2020). This study was planned to check the impact of two commonly used insecticides, chlorpyrifos and acephate, on the web-building behavior of the orb-web spider Argiope trifasciata. This spider is found abundantly in the agricultural fields of Punjab, Pakistan. These are organophosphate pesticides and are frequently sprayed on cereal crops to control pests. The aim of conducting this study was to determine the effectiveness of these two neurotoxic insecticides on the web-making behavior of the orb-web spider Argiope trifasciata.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Spider collection

Ninety samples of Argiope trifasciata were collected from rice fields in Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan (32.03'-74.40'). Three sampling sites were randomly selected: Kot Allah Yar (31.8474'-72.3734'), Shah Nikdar (31.6502'-72.3277'), and Silanwali (31.4930'-72.3220'). From each site, three rice fields were randomly chosen, and ten samples from each field were collected. Sampling occurred between September 6 and November 23, 2022, in fields that had not received pesticide applications. The collected spiders were examined under a stereo microscope to identify their species and sex, with only female adults being selected for the study. The spiders were divided into two groups: a control group and a treated group. To standardize their hunger levels before the trials, the sampled spiders were kept without food for three days, after which they were transferred to wooden frames for the experiments.

2.2. Wooden arena

Wooden frames (2×2 ft) were designed to study the web-building behavior of the orb web spider Argiope trifasciata in the laboratory. The frames were covered with plastic sheets on both sides. A thread support was attached along the walls of the box to provide anchoring points for web construction. The two opposite sides of the plastic sheets could be removed for feeding purposes and capturing images. Sampled spiders were transferred to these wooden frames very carefully, and each spider was given two live specimens of the housefly (Musca domestica) by introducing them from one side of the wooden frame after removing the plastic sheet. Live buzzing prey was given to the spider because it stimulates the spider to construct webs. All spiders, at the same nutritional state, received two prey items daily during the entire period of the trial. All boxes were placed in the laboratory, which maintained a temperature of 27°±3°C and a light-dark cycle of 12:12. In each frame, a wet cotton swab was placed to ensure higher humidity levels ranging between 65 and 70%.

2.3. Insecticides

Two commonly used commercial products, chlorpyrifos and acephate, were selected for experimentation. Three concentrations of these insecticides were prepared to evaluate their short-term effects on the web-building behavior of orb-weaving spiders. These concentrations were created by diluting the insecticide formulations in distilled water. The field-rate concentrations for acephate and chlorpyrifos were 7.5 g/L and 9 mL/L, respectively. An intermediate concentration for acephate was 5.62 g/L, while for chlorpyrifos, it was 6.75 mL/L. The half-field concentrations were 3.75 g/L for acephate and 4.5 mL/L for chlorpyrifos.

2.3.1. Spider exposure

Different concentrations of both insecticides were applied using filter papers (10×10 cm). Filter paper sheets were rolled into tube form (diameter 1 cm, length 10 cm). These tube-shaped filter papers were then dipped in insecticide solution for the experimental group and in distilled water for the control group. After drying the filter paper, a single spider from the treated group was released into each filter paper tube for 30 min. After exposure, the spiders were again shifted into the designated wooden boxes. Then, two live prey were also introduced to stimulate web construction. Web building and mortality were observed after every 24, 48, and 72 h of application of the insecticides.

2.3.2 Web parameter and imaging

During each observation, web building was documented, and web parameters were recorded. After 72 h, photographs of the webs were taken using a Nikon COOLPIX P510 digital camera. The recorded web parameters included the number of spirals and radii, as well as the horizontal and vertical diameter of the web, the radius, and the mesh height. The capture area of the web was calculated using the “Ellipse” formula (Formula 1), which approximates the web's shape as elliptical. This capture area represents the surface area of the web (Herberstein and Tso, 2000).

C a p t u r e a r e a = ( d v / 2 ) ( d h / 2 ) π (1)

Where

dv = vertical diameter

dh = horizontal diameter

2.4. Statistical analysis

All statistical analysis were conducted by using software SPSS version 13.

3. Results

3.1. Web construction after acephate exposure

In the control group, the spiders built regular webs, while after 72 h of exposure to half-field, intermediate field, and field rate concentrations of acephate, the web-building behavior was affected gradually (Figure 1-4). The most irregular web construction behavior was observed at the field rate concentration (Figure 4).

thumbnail of Figure 1
Figure 1
Web constructed by spider after 72hours of exposure at control group.
thumbnail of Figure 2
Figure 2
Web construction by spider after 72hours of exposure at half field rate concentration of acephate.
thumbnail of Figure 3
Figure 3
Web constructed by spider after 72hours of exposure at intermediate rate concentration of acephate.
thumbnail of Figure 4
Figure 4
Web constructed by spider after 72hours of exposure at field rate concentration of acephate.

3.2. Web construction after chlorpyrifos exposure

At 72 h of exposure to half-field concentration of chlorpyrifos, an irregular web was constructed, while at intermediate field concentration, adverse effects were observed on web-building behavior (Figures 5 and 6). However, at field-rate concentration of chlorpyrifos, only drag lines were observed (Figure 7).

thumbnail of Figure 5
Figure 5
Web constructed by spider after 72 h of exposure at half field rate concentration of chlorpyrifos.
thumbnail of Figure 6
Figure 6
Web constructed by spider after 72 h exposure at intermediate rate concentration of chlorpyrifos.
thumbnail of Figure 7
Figure 7
Web constructed by spider after 72 h exposure at field rate concentration of chlorpyrifos.

After 24 h of exposure to different concentrations of acephate, the maximum values were observed for all web parameters in the control group, while the minimum values (number of spirals, radii, diameter, and radius) were observed in the field rate concentration (Table 1). After 48 and 72 h of exposure to different concentrations, the maximum values for all web parameters were observed in the control, while the minimum values were observed in the field rate concentration (Tables 2 and 3).

Thumbnail
Table 1
Comparison of web building parameters of acephate treated spiders and control group after 24 h of exposure.
Thumbnail
Table 2
Comparison of web building parameters of acephate treated spiders and control group after 48 h of exposure.
Thumbnail
Table 3
Comparison of web building parameters of acephate treated spiders and control group after 72 h of exposure.

After 24, 48 and 72 h of exposure of different concentrations of chlorpyrifos the lowest number of spirals, radii, diameter, radius and captured area were observed at field concentration (Tables 4, 5 and 6).

Thumbnail
Table 4
Comparison of web building parameters of chlorpyrifos treated spiders and control group after 24 h of exposure.
Thumbnail
Table 5
Comparison of web building parameters of chlorpiryfos treated spiders and control group after 48 h of exposure.
Thumbnail
Table 6
Comparison of web building parameters of chlorpiryfos treated spiders and control group after 72 h of exposure.

3.3. Spider mortality

Spiders in the experimental group were exposed to three different concentrations of chlorpyrifos and acephate. A 30% mortality rate was recorded after exposure to the field rate concentration of acephate, while 20% and 5% mortalities were observed after exposure to the intermediate and half-field concentrations, respectively. Similarly, a 50% mortality rate was observed at the field rate concentration of chlorpyrifos. However, 20% and 10% mortalities were observed after the application of the insecticide at the intermediate and half-field concentrations, respectively (Table 7).

Thumbnail
Table 7
Mortality percentage of Acephate and Chlorpyrifos treated spiders.

4. Discussion

In our study, we investigated the effects of two insecticides, acephate and chlorpyrifos, on the mortality and web-building behavior of Argiope trifasciata in a laboratory setting. These neurotoxic insecticides are widely used to control various arthropod pest species in agriculture and domestic settings (Yen et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2012). Our results indicated that mortality rates were 30% for acephate and 50% for chlorpyrifos at field-rate concentrations. Similar findings were reported by Fernandes et al. (2010), who noted that the toxicity of organophosphate compounds is linked to their pro-insecticide activity; upon entering an organism's body, these compounds become more toxic. As both insecticides belong to this class, they may impact spiders. Previous studies have shown that chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate insecticide, exhibits developmental and neurobehavioral toxicity (Garcia et al., 2003; Slotkin et al., 2009). It has also been observed to cause neuronal damage in the developing brain through oxidative stress and other cellular mechanisms, such as the inhibition of adenyl cyclase (Qiao et al., 2005). Hodge et al. (2000) conducted examinations on lacewings that demonstrated high sensitivity to exposure at field-rate concentrations of similar compounds, resulting in a significant decrease in cholinesterase activity and increased mortality. Furthermore, a positive relationship between cholinesterase inhibition and mortality rates was observed in wolf spiders (Van Erp et al., 2002).

This study showed that the spiders treated with field rate and intermediate rate concentrations of chlorpyrifos constructed very poor quality webs. After 24 h of exposure at half field rate concentration of chlorpyrifos, mortality was low and web parameters were not significantly different from the control. However, after 48 and 72 h of exposure to different concentrations of chlorpyrifos, web construction behavior was adversely affected. It seems that the effect of insecticides reaches its peak after 48 and 72 h of exposure. Rao et al. (2005) reported that organophosphate-treated insects showed altered locomotory behavior, and 60–80% of insects had impaired movement patterns after the application of insecticides.

Similarly, web parameters of acephate-treated and control group spiders were compared. Our results revealed that at field rate concentration, the mortality rate was quite high, and web construction was also affected. This may be due to direct exposure to the insecticide, as acephate is an organophosphorus insecticide that inhibits acetylcholinesterase activity and is mostly used to control different insect pests, particularly sucking pests (Yen et al., 2000). Vollrath and Samu (1997) reported that well fed spiders were unable to build webs, while starved spiders efficiently built their webs. Results revealed that acephate showed less lethal effects but significant sublethal effects. At intermediate and field rate concentrations of acephate, all spiders constructed webs, but the webs were mostly irregular in shape. A possible reason for the irregularity in webs might be due to neurotoxic symptoms that cause loss of coordination control and result in paralysis and trembling (Desneux et al., 2007; Martinou et al., 2014).

Comparisons of web parameters following exposure to field and intermediate concentrations of acephate revealed that insecticide exposure significantly affects web-building behavior. Analysis of web parameters indicated significant irregularities, with greater effects observed at field-rate concentrations compared to half-field-rate concentrations. Pekár and Beneš (2008) supports these findings, noting that higher concentrations of insecticides cause more lethal and sublethal effects than lower concentrations. This study demonstrated that acephate has less lethal but notable sublethal effects. Rezac et al. (2010) explain that some highly selective insecticides are harmless to Philodromus spiders in terms of mortality rate but considerably reduce their functional response.

Our results showed that all web parameters, including the number of spirals, number of radii, web diameter, radius, and prey capture, were significantly affected 72 h after exposure to acephate at field concentrations. Cunningham et al. (2002) reported that, in addition to affecting neurotransmitters, organophosphates tend to accumulate in cell membranes, altering their permeability. Research on the sparassid spider Polybetes pythagoricus demonstrated that contact with organophosphates altered lipid dynamics and reduced oxygen binding capacity. Furthermore, these compounds not only cause neurotoxic symptoms but also influence behavioral aspects such as orientation and foraging in predatory arthropods (Moser & Obrycki, 2009; Desneux et al., 2007; Martinou et al., 2014). While there is limited data on the impacts of acephate on orb-weaving spiders, some adverse physiological effects have been documented in resident frogs in highly contaminated areas, including elevated AChE activity in plasma (Marcogliese et al., 2009; Bérubé et al., 2005; Boily et al., 2005, 2009, 2013).

Some authors suggest that organophosphates affect the interaction between the light receptors and the circadian clock. The lycosid Pardosa palustris not only showed less movement after exposure to organophosphates but also exhibited an uncoordinated walking pattern (Pekár & Beneš 2008). Our results showed that chlorpyrifos produced more lethal and sublethal effects on spiders compared to acephate. Chlorpyrifos, even in low concentrations, impairs the web-building behavior of spiders. These insecticides are effective in controlling pest populations in fields, but their effects on spiders are questionable and need further recommendations and precautions for use in IPM systems. However, further studies are required to determine the underlying phenomena that hinder the web-building behavior of spiders under the effect of these neurotoxic insecticides.

Data Availability Statement

The research data analyzed in this study are not publicly available by any means.

References

  • ALBIN, A., LACAVA, M. and VIERA, C., 2014. Effects of gonylpeptidine on the orb-web spider Araneus lathyrinus (Holmberg, 1875). Arachnology, vol. 161, no. 5, pp. 154-156. https://doi.org/10.13156/arac.2012.16.5.154
    » https://doi.org/10.13156/arac.2012.16.5.154
  • BAIG, S.A., AKHTERA, N.A., ASHFAQ, M. and ASI, M.R., 2009. Determination of the organophosphorus pesticides in vegetables by high-performance liquid chromatography. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, vol. 5, pp. 513-519.
  • BÉRUBÉ, V., BOILY, M.H., DEBLOIS, C., DASSYLVA, N. and SPEAR, P.A., 2005. Plasma retinoid profile in bullfrogs, Rana catesbeiana, in relation to agricultural intensity of sub-watersheds in the Yamasaki River drainage basin, Québec, Canada. Aquatic Toxicology, vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 109-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2004.10.018 PMid:15642636.
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2004.10.018
  • BOILY, M., BÉRUBÉ, V.E., SPEAR, P.A., DEBLOIS, C. and DASSYLVA, N., 2005. Hepatic retinoids of bullfrogs in relation to agricultural pesticides. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 1099-1106. https://doi.org/10.1897/04-126R.1 PMid:16110987.
    » https://doi.org/10.1897/04-126R.1
  • BOILY, M., THIBODEAU, J. and BISSON, M., 2009. Retinoid metabolism (LRAT, REH) in the liver and plasma retinoids of bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, in relation to agricultural contamination. Aquatic Toxicology, vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.11.006 PMid:19121872.
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.11.006
  • BOILY, M., SARRASIN, B., DEBLOIS, C., ARAS, P. and CHAGNON, M., 2013. Acetylcholinesterase in honey bees (Apis mellifera) exposed to neonicotenoids, atrazine and glyphosate: laboratory and field experiments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 5603-5614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1568-2 PMid:23443944.
    » https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1568-2
  • BUTT, A. and BEG, M.A., 2000. Some new species of Marpissa (Salticidae) from Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, vol. 32, pp. 75-79.
  • BUTT, A. and BEG, M.A., 2001. Description of two new species ofspiders of the families Clubionidae and Oxyopidae from Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, vol. 33, pp. 35-37.
  • CHEN, C., QIAN, Y., LIU, X., TAO, C., LIANG, Y. and LI, Y., 2012. Risk assessment of chlorpyrifos on rice and cabbage in China. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology : RTP, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 125-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.12.011 PMid:22210174.
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.12.011
  • CUNNINGHAM, M., GARCIA, C.F., GONZÁLEZ-BARÓ, M.R., GARDA, H. and POLLERO, R., 2002. Organophosphorous insecticide fenitrothion alters the lipid dynamics in the spider Polybetes pythagoricus high density lipoprotein. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-3575(02)00016-0
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-3575(02)00016-0
  • DESNEUX, N., DECOURTYE, A. and DELPUECH, J.M., 2007. The sublethal effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods. Annual Review of Entomology, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 81-106. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091440 PMid:16842032.
    » https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091440
  • FAIZ, M., 2022. Pesticide impacts on wildlife and human-a mini review. Journal of Wildlife and Ecology., vol. 6, pp. 15-21.
  • FERNANDES, F.L., BACCI, L. and FERNANDES, M.S., 2010. Impact and selectivity of insecticides to predators and parasitoids. EntomoBrasilis, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.12741/ebrasilis.v3i1.52
    » https://doi.org/10.12741/ebrasilis.v3i1.52
  • FOELIX, R. 2011. Biology of spiders. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1–344.
  • GARCIA, S.J., SEIDLER, F.J. and SLOTKIN, T.A., 2003. Developmental neurotoxicity elicited bt prenatal or postnatal chlorpyrifos exposure: effects on neurospecific proteins indicate changing vulnerabilities. Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 111, no. 3, pp. 297-303. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.5791 PMid:12611658.
    » https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.5791
  • GHAFOOR, A. and BEG, M.A., 2002. Description of two new species of Araneid spiders from Pakistan. In J. Agricultural Biology, vol. 4, pp. 525-527.
  • HENNAWY, H.K., 2009. Eresidae of Sudan (Araneida: eresidae). Serket = Sarkat, vol. 11, pp. 129-137.
  • HERBERSTEIN, M.E. and TSO, I.M., 2000. Evaluation of formulae to estimate the capture area and mesh height of orb-webs (Araneidae, Araneae). The Journal of Arachnology, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 180-184. https://doi.org/10.1636/0161-8202(2000)028[0180:EOFTET]2.0.CO;2
    » https://doi.org/10.1636/0161-8202(2000)028[0180:EOFTET]2.0.CO;2
  • HODGE, S., LONGLEY, M., BOOTH, L., HEPPELTHWAITE, V. and O’HALLORAN, K., 2000. Cholinesterase activity in the Tasmanian lacewing as a biomarker for organophosphorus pesticides. Australian Journal of Ecotoxicology, vol. 6, pp. 109-116.
  • HUSSAIN, A.I. and TANVEER, H., 2023. The hidden threat: investigating the effects of triazophos insecticide on the kidney of rock pigeon. Journal of Wildlife and Ecology, vol. 7, pp. 1-7.
  • LAGERKVIST, C.J., NGIGI, M., OKELLO, J.J. and KARANJA, N., 2012. Means-End Chain approach to understanding farmers’ motivations for pesticide use in leafy vegetables: the case of kale in peri-urban Nairobi, Kenya. Crop Protection (Guildford, Surrey), vol. 39, pp. 72-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2012.03.018
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2012.03.018
  • LEVI, H.W., LEVI, L.R., ZIM, H.S. and STREKALOVSKY, N. 2002. Spiders and Their Kin. New York: Golden Books Publishing Company, pp. 1–220.
  • MARC, P. and CANARD, A., 1997. Maintaining spider biodiversity in agroecosystems as a tool in pest control. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 62, no. 2-3, pp. 229-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(96)01133-4
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(96)01133-4
  • MARC, P.A., CANARD, A. and YSNEL, F., 1999. Spiders (Araneae) useful for pest limitation and bioindication. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 74, no. 1-3, pp. 229-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(99)00038-9
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(99)00038-9
  • MARCOGLIESE, D.J., KING, K.C., SALO, H.M., FOURNIER, M., BROUSSEAU, P., SPEAR, P., CHAMPOUX, L., MCLAUGHLIN, J.D. and BOILY, M., 2009. Combined effects of agricultural activity and parasites on biomarkers in the bullfrog, Rana catasbeiana. Aquatic Toxicology, vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 126-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.10.001 PMid:19019467.
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.10.001
  • MARTINOU, A.F., SERAPHIDES, N. and STAVRINIDES, M.C., 2014. Lethal and behavioral effects of pesticides on the insect predator Macrolophus pygmaeus. Chemosphere, vol. 96, pp. 167-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.024 PMid:24200046.
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.024
  • MOSER, S.E. and OBRYCKI, J.J., 2009. Non-target effects of neonicotinoid seed treatments; mortality of coccinellid larvae related to zoophytophagy. Biological Control, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 487-492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.09.001
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.09.001
  • MUKHTAR, M.K. and MUSHTAQ, S., 2005. Spiders of the Genus Cyclosa (Araneae: Araneidae) from Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, vol. 37, pp. 199-204.
  • MUKHTAR, M.K., KHAN, S.Y., JABEEN, S., TAHIR, H.M., QADIR, A., AHMAD, K.R., BUTT, A. and ARSHAD, M., 2012. A Preliminary checklist of the spider fauna of Sargodha (Punjab), Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 1245-1254.
  • PAKISTAN. Government of Pakistan. 2014-2015 [viewed 23 February 2025]. Statistical supplement, Economic Survey. Islamabad, Pakistan: Ministry of finance Division, Economic Advisor’s Wing. Available from http://www.finance.gov.pk
    » http://www.finance.gov.pk
  • PANHWAR, W.A., 2022. An annotated checklist of praying mantises (Mantodea) from Pakistan-a review. Journal of Wildlife and Ecology., vol. 6, pp. 48-57.
  • PEARCE, J.L. and VENIER, L.A., 2006. The use of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and spiders (Araneae) as bioindicators of sustainable forest management: a review. Ecological Indicators, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 780-793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.03.005
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.03.005
  • PEKÁR, S. and BENEŠ, J., 2008. Aged pesticides residue are detrimental to agrobiont spiders (Araneae). Journal of Applied Entomology, vol. 132, no. 8, pp. 614-622. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.2008.01294.x
    » https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.2008.01294.x
  • PEKÁR, S., 2012. Spiders (Araneae) in the pesticide world: an ecotoxicological review. Pest Management Science, vol. 68, no. 11, pp. 1438-1446. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.3397 PMid:22945871.
    » https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.3397
  • QIAO, D., SEIDLER, F.J. and SLOTKIN, T.A., 2005. Oxidative mechanisms contributing to developmental neurotoxicity of nicotine and chlorpyrifos. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, vol. 206, no. 1, pp. 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2004.11.003 PMid:15963341.
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2004.11.003
  • RAO, J., PARVATHI, K., KAVITHA, P., JAKKA, N.M. and PALLELA, R., 2005. Effect of chlorpyrifos and monocrtophos on locomotor behaviour and acetylcholinesterase activity of subterranean termites. Odontotermites Obesus. Pest Manage. Sci., vol. 61, pp. 417-421. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.986
    » https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.986
  • REZAC, M., PEKAR, S. and STARA, J., 2010. The negative effect of some selective insecticides on the functional response of a potential biological control agent, the spider Philodomu scespitum. BioControl, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 503-510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-010-9272-3
    » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-010-9272-3
  • SABA, M., AWAN, D.S. and YOUSAF, S., 2020. Spider as a biological agent in pest control-A Review. Journal of Wildlife and Ecology., vol. 4, pp. 27-34.
  • SEBASTIAN, P.A. and PETER, K.V., 2009. Spiders of India Hyderabad: Universities Press.
  • SENI, A. and NAIK, B.S., 2017. Efficacy of some insecticides against major insect pests of rice, Oryza sativa L. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1381-1385.
  • SHAHID, M., KHALID, S., MURTAZA, B., ANWAR, H., SHAH, A.H., SARDAR, A. and NIAZI, N.K., 2023. A critical analysis of wastewater use in agriculture and associated health risks in Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 45, no. 8, pp. 5599-5618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00702-3 PMid:32875481.
    » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00702-3
  • SHARMA, A., KUMAR, V., SHAHZAD, B., TANVEER, M., SIDHU, G.P.S., HANDA, N., KOHLI, S.K., YADAV, P., BALI, A.S., PARIHAR, R.D., DAR, O.I., SINGH, K., JASROTIA, S., BAKSHI, P., RAMAKRISHNAN, M., KUMAR, S., BHARDWAJ, R. and THUKRAL, A.K., 2019. Worldwide pesticide usage and its impacts on ecosystem. SN Applied Sciences, vol. 1, no. 11, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1485-1
    » https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1485-1
  • SHERAWAT, S.M., BUTT, A. and TAHIR, H.M., 2015. Effects of pesticides on agrobiont Spiders in laboratory and field. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, vol. 47, pp. 1089-1095.
  • SIGSGAARD, L. 2000. Early season natural biological control of insect pests in rice by spiders-and some factors in the management of the cropping system that may affect this control. In: Proceedings of the 19th European Colloquium of Arachnology, 17-22 July 2000, Århus. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, pp. 57–64.
  • SLOTKIN, T.A., SEIDLER, F.J., WU, C., MACKILLOP, E.A. and LINDEN, K.G., 2009. Ultraviolet photolysis of Chlorpyrifos: developmental neurotoxicity modeled in PC12 cells. Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 117, no. 3, pp. 338-343. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11592 PMid:19337505.
    » https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11592
  • SOLANKI, R. and KUMAR, D., 2015. Web structure and efficiency of prey capture in Neoscona vigilans (Blackwall, 1865) (Araneae: aranidae). JEZS, vol. 3, pp. 158-161.
  • SUANA, I.W., 2005. Bioecology of spiders in ricefield landscape at Cianjur. Bogor, Indonesia: School of Post Graduate Studies, Bogor Agricultural University, 128 p. Master Dissertation in Zoology.
  • TAHIR, H.M. and BUTT, A., 2008. Activities of spiders in rice fields of central Punjab, Pakistan. Dong Wu Xue Bao, vol. 54, pp. 701-711.
  • TAHIR, M.H., BUTT, A., NAHEED, R., BILAL, M. and ALAM, I., 2011. Activity density of spiders inhabiting the citrus field in Lahore, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, vol. 43, pp. 683-688.
  • TUDI, M., DANIEL RUAN, H., WANG, L., LYU, J., SADLER, R., CONNELL, D., CHU, C. and PHUNG, D.T., 2021. Agriculture development, pesticide application and its impact on the environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 1112. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112 PMid:33513796.
    » https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112
  • URSANI, T.J. and SOOMRO, N.M., 2010. Checklist of spider fauna of Sindh Province, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Entomology., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 20-25.
  • VAN ERP, S.V., BOOTH, L., GOONERATNE, R. and HALLORAN, K., 2002. Sublethal responses of wolf spiders (Lycosidae) to organophosphorous insecticides. Environmental Toxicology, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 449-456. https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.10078 PMid:12242675.
    » https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.10078
  • VOLLRATH, F. and SAMU, F., 1997. The effect of starvation on web geometry in an orb-weaving spider. Bulletin - British Arachnological Society, vol. 10, pp. 295-298.
  • YEN, J.H., LIN, K.H. and WANG, Y.S., 2000. Potential of the insecticides acephate and methamidophos to contaminate groundwater. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 79-86. https://doi.org/10.1006/eesa.1999.1846 PMid:10677270.
    » https://doi.org/10.1006/eesa.1999.1846

Edited by

  • Editor:
    Ana Paula Peron

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    26 Jan 2026
  • Date of issue
    2025

History

  • Received
    23 Feb 2025
  • Accepted
    19 Sept 2025
Creative Common - by 4.0
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
location_on
Instituto Internacional de Ecologia R. Bento Carlos, 750, 13560-660 São Carlos SP - Brasil, Tel. e Fax: (55 16) 3362-5400 - São Carlos - SP - Brazil
E-mail: bjb@bjb.com.br
rss_feed Stay informed of issues for this journal through your RSS reader
Report error