Essential oils Composition, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Synergistic Effects of Ammodaucus leucotrichus and Thymus maroccanusAbstract
This study investigates the synergistic effects of essential oils (EOs) from two wild Moroccan medicinal and aromatic plants, Ammodaucus leucotrichus and Thymus maroccanus, on enhancing the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. GC-MS analysis identified carvacrol (75.05%) as the main component of T. maroccanus essential oil, and perillaldehyde (84.19%) and limonene (14.15%) as dominant in that of A. leucotrichus. The antimicrobial efficacy was assessed against Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Candida krusei and Candida parapsilosis. The antimicrobial assays revealed that both individual essential oils and their combinations exhibited significant antimicrobial effects against all the tested strains, with minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum microbicidal concentration (MMC) values ranging from 97.65 µg/mL to 1562.5 µg/mL. Additionally, antioxidant potential was evaluated through the DPPH and reducing power (RP) assays, indicating that T. maroccanus essential oil and all the mixtures demonstrated strong antioxidant activity, with IC50 and EC50 values ranging from 0.15 to 0.2 mg/ml for DPPH and 2.32 to 2.41 mg/mL for the RP assay, respectively. These findings highlight the potential of these essential oils and their mixtures as effective natural alternatives to synthetic antimicrobial and antioxidant agents, with promising applications in pharmaceuticals and food industries.
Keywords:
essential oils; antimicrobial activity; antioxidant activity; Ammodaucus leucotrichus; Thymus maroccanus
Resumo
Este estudo investiga os efeitos sinérgicos dos óleos essenciais (OEs) de duas plantas medicinais e aromáticas silvestres do Marrocos, Ammodaucus leucotrichus e Thymus maroccanus, na potencialização das atividades antioxidante e antimicrobiana. A análise por GC-MS identificou o carvacrol (75,05%) como o principal componente do óleo essencial de T. maroccanus, e o perillaldeído (84,19%) e o limoneno (14,15%) como dominantes no óleo de A. leucotrichus. A eficácia antimicrobiana foi avaliada contra Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Candida krusei e Candida parapsilosis. Os ensaios antimicrobianos revelaram que tanto os óleos essenciais isolados quanto suas combinações exibiram efeitos antimicrobianos significativos contra todas as cepas testadas, com valores de concentração inibitória mínima (CIM) e concentração microbicida mínima (CMM) variando entre 97,65 µg/mL e 1562,5 µg/mL. Além disso, o potencial antioxidante foi avaliado por meio dos ensaios DPPH e de poder redutor (RP), indicando que o óleo essencial de T. maroccanus e todas as misturas demonstraram forte atividade antioxidante, com valores de IC50 e EC50 variando de 0,15 a 0,2 mg/mL para DPPH, e de 2,32 a 2,41 mg/mL para o ensaio de RP, respectivamente. Esses resultados destacam o potencial desses óleos essenciais e suas combinações como alternativas naturais eficazes aos agentes antimicrobianos e antioxidantes sintéticos, com aplicações promissoras nas indústrias farmacêutica e alimentícia.
Palavras-chave:
óleos essenciais; atividade antimicrobiana; atividade antioxidante; Ammodaucus leucotrichus; Thymus maroccanus
1. Introduction
Medicinal plants play a foundational role in traditional healthcare systems, especially in developing countries where their use is deeply implicated in herbal medicine practices. In Africa, traditional medicine is the primary source of healthcare for more than 80% of the population (Bouyahya et al., 2017). Essential oils are derived from a variety of medicinal and aromatic plants. These substances are complex mixtures of volatile compounds, predominantly terpenoids and aromatic compounds which have been shown to serve as natural defense mechanisms against a wide range of food spoilage and contamination issues (Saeed et al., 2022). A number of studies have demonstrated the vast spectrum of biological activities exhibited by essential oils. They are valuable sources of natural antioxidants capable of neutralizing reactive oxygen species and chelating transition metals (Kaur et al., 2024).
In recent years, the antimicrobial potential of essential oils has attracted increasing scientific interest, given their demonstrated efficacy against various antibiotic-resistant strains (Vasireddy et al., 2018). This growing interest is largely driven by the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which has become a major global health concern. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), AMR is responsible for approximately 1.27 million deaths annually, with projections suggesting that it could surpass cancer as the leading cause of mortality by 2050. Among the pathogens of concern, Listeria monocytogenes is a major foodborne bacterium responsible for listeriosis, a severe infection with mortality rates ranging between 20 and 40%. It can cause septicemia or meningitis, particularly in immunocompromised individuals, the elderly, neonates, and pregnant women. This bacterium is commonly found in contaminated foods, soil, and water, posing significant challenges for food safety and regulatory authorities (Byrne et al., 2016). Similarly, Bacillus cereus can occasionally cause life-threatening infections, including septicemia, central nervous system complications, or endophthalmitis in severely immunocompromised patients, and is widely present in foods and the environment (Schoenfeld et al., 2022). Furthermore, opportunistic yeasts, such as Candida krusei and Candida parapsilosis, are implicated in systemic candidiasis, fungaemia, endocarditis, and catheter-associated infections, particularly in immunocompromised patients and neonates, often originating from skin, mucosal surfaces, or healthcare settings (Branco et al., 2023). The increasing resistance of pathogenic microorganisms highlights the urgent need for novel antimicrobial strategies. Moreover, recent research has validated that blends of essential oils are a suitable strategy for obtaining an additional antimicrobial effect due to the synergistic interactions that are produced between their various components (Chraibi et al., 2021).
In this context, the present study investigates the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of essential oils derived from A. leucotrichus and T. maroccanus and evaluates the synergistic effects of their combination. We aim to evaluate their efficacy as natural antimicrobial agents by assessing their activity against Candida krusei, Candida parapsilosis, Listeria monocytogenes and Bacillus cereus. The findings of this study could contribute to the development of effective alternatives to combat emerging microbial drug resistance and support food preservation strategies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oil mixtures derived from these wild Moroccan species.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Plant material and essential oil extraction
The aerial parts of Thymus maroccanus (TM) and Ammodaucus leucotrichus (AL) were collected at their full flowering stage in May 2024 from Ait Ourir (N 31° 33'/ W 07° 40') and the Tafilalt (N 31° 20'/ W 04° 16') region, respectively. The plants were identified and voucher specimens were deposited at the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRA) in Marrakech, Morocco. The collected plant material was air-dried at room temperature in the shade and then subjected to hydrodistillation for 3 hours using a Clevenger-type apparatus. The essential oils extraction was run in triplicate (3 × 100 g). The obtained essential oils were dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, weighed and stored at 4 °C in airtight glass vials until further use. To explore potential synergistic effects, TM and AL were combined in different ratios (TM:AL) to formulate three mixtures M1 (1:3), M2 (1:1), and M3 (3:1).
2.2. Components Identification and Quantification (GC-MS)
Chromatographic analyses were performed using a gas chromatograph (Trace GC1310) coupled with mass spectrometry (ISQ 7000 Quadrupole), equipped with a TR-5 MS capillary column (5% Phenyl Methyl Silox, 30 m × 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm) from Thermo Scientific (Thermo Fisher Scientific Corporation, USA). The GC oven temperature was programmed to initiate at 50°C (held for 3 min), increased to 150°C at the rate of 25°C/min and maintained for 20 min, followed by a final increase to 250 °C at 20°C/min where it was maintained for 7 minutes. An injection volume of 1μl was used, Helium was the carrier gas at a flow rate of 1mL/min. The spectra were recorded in electron impact (EI) mode with an ionization energy of 70 eV. The identification of the EOs compounds was carried out by comparing each one to those reported by (Adams, 2017) and the NIST mass spectrum library, on the basis on its specific retention index.
2.3. Antimicrobial activity
2.3.1. Microbial strains
The tests were conducted on two Gram-positive bacteria, Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 19115) and Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579) and two yeast species, Candida krusei (CCMM L10) and Candida parapsilosis (CCMM L18). All strains were provided by the Center of Biotechnology, Borj Cedria, Tunisia.
2.3.2. Antimicrobial screening
The in vitro antimicrobial activity of A. leucotrichus and T. marrocanus essential oils was evaluated by the disk diffusion method (NCCLS, 1997). Briefly, a suspension of the tested microorganism in log phase (0.1 mL) was spread on Mueller Hinton Agar (MHA) for bacteria and Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) for yeasts. Whatman filter paper disc (6 mm in diameter) was impregnated with 5μl of each essential oil and placed on the inoculated plates. The plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 h for bacteria and 25°C for 48 h for yeasts. The diameters of inhibition zones were measured in millimeters (mm). Ciprofloxacin (15 μg/disc) and Fluconazole (40 μg/disc) were used as standard antibacterial and antifungal drug respectively. A negative control containing 5μL of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was included.
2.3.3. Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum microbicidal concentration
The broth microdilution method was used to determine the MIC as described by (Soulaimani et al., 2019). The bacterial strains were cultivated in Mueller Hinton Broth (MHB) while the yeast strains were grown in Sabouraud Dextrose Broth (SDB). A fresh overnight culture in log phase was adjusted to 106 CFU/mL for bacteria and 1-2 × 103cells/mL for yeasts. The EO was dissolved using 1% of DMSO, then serially diluted to obtain final EO concentrations ranging from 1.6 µL/mL to 0.003 µL/mL. Initially, 100 μL of essential oil dilution was mixed to an equal volume of microbial suspension and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h and at 25°C for 48 h for bacteria and yeasts, respectively. Finally, the MIC was determined after verification of the bacterial growth using resazurin as redox indicator. The MMC was defined as the lowest concentration of the essential oil that completely inhibited visible microbial growth after 24 h of incubation at 37°C for bacteria and 48 h at 25°C for yeasts (Razzouk et al., 2022). Ciprofloxacin and fluconazole served as positive controls and all assays were carried out in triplicate.
2.4. Investigation of the synergistic effect
The interaction effects of the double combination of the essential oils were evaluated against the four strains. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were converted into fractional inhibitory concentrations (FICs) to determine the interaction between the EOs. The fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) was derived by summing the FIC values of the two oils in combination and were calculated as follows: FICI = (MIC of oil A in the presence of Oil B combination/MIC of oil A alone) + (MIC of oil B in the presence of Oil /MIC of oil B alone).
Based on the FICI values, interactions were classified as synergistic (FICI ≤ 0.5), partially synergistic (0.5 < FICI < 1), additive (FICI = 1), indifferent (1 < FICI ≤ 4), or antagonistic (FICI > 4) (Nikkhah and Hashemi, 2020) .
2.5. Antioxidant activity
2.5.1. DPPH free radical scavenging activity
The ability of the essential oils to reduce DPPH was evaluated using the approach of Dahmane et al. (2017). Aliquots (1 mL) of essential oils at concentrations ranging from 25 to 1000 μg/mL were combined with an equal volume of methanolic DPPH solution (0.004% w/v). The mixtures were incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature and the absorbance was measured at 517 nm. Absorption of a blank sample containing methanol and DPPH solution was used as a negative control and ascorbic acid was used as a positive control. The inhibition percentage (I%) of the DPPH free radical was calculated using the formula: I % = [(A_blank − A_sample) / A_blank] × 100
IC50 values, representing the concentration required for a 50% reduction in DPPH, were determined from the inhibition curves. All tests were conducted in triplicate, and IC50 values are expressed as means ± SD.
2.5.2. Reducing power assay
The power of EOs to reduce ferric iron (Fe3+) present in the potassium ferricyanide complex to ferrous iron (Fe2+) was determined according to (Jeldi et al., 2022). Essential oils at different concentrations were mixed with phosphate buffer (2.5 mL, 0.2 M, pH 6.6) and potassium ferricyanide [K3Fe (CN)6] (2.5 mL, 1%). The obtained solution was incubated in a water bath at 50°C for 20 min. Trichloroacetic acid (2.5 mL, 10%) was then added to stop the reaction, followed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 min. Finally, the supernatant (2.5 mL) was mixed with distilled water (2.5 mL) and FeCl3(0.5 mL, 0.1%), and the absorbance was measured at 700 nm. The EC50, representing the oil concentration required to achieve an absorbance of 0.5, was determined from the absorbance-concentration curve. Quercetin was used as the reference compound, and all tests were carried out in triplicate, with EC50 values expressed as means ± SD.
2.6. Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis IBM® SPSS® Statistics 26 software was used for statistical analysis. All experiments were made in triplicate. Means and standard deviation were calculated, followed by Tukey’s test (P≤0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Essential oil yield and chemical composition
The hydrodistillation of the aerial parts of Thymus maroccanus and Ammodaucus leucotrichus produced yellow and blue essential oils, with yields of 1.51% and 1.55%, respectively. The yields and chemical profiles of the EOs are shown in Table 1. GC-MS analysis identified 12 compounds in T. maroccanus EO, characterized by a high content of oxygenated monoterpenes, particularly carvacrol (75.05%) as the major constituent, thymol (2.46%) and camphor (2.10%). Monoterpene hydrocarbons were also present, including p-cymene (5.71%), γ-terpinene (5.59%), α-pinene (1.77%), camphene (1.55%) and α-terpinene (0.76%). Sesquiterpenes were identified in minor amounts, with caryophyllene, alloaromadendrene, α-gurjunene, and β-bisabolene among the detected compounds. The EO of A. leucotrichus contained 85.82% of oxygenated monoterpenes and 14.15% monoterpene hydrocarbons, with perillaldehyde (84.19%) and limonene (14.15%) as the main constituents.
3.2. Antimicrobial activity
The antimicrobial activity of Thymus maroccanus and Ammodaucus leucotrichus essential oils was initially assessed qualitatively by measuring inhibition zone diameters (mm) against the tested strains (Table 2). T. maroccanus exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity, with inhibition zones ranging from (41.3-25.7mm) against Gram-positive bacteria, followed by Candida species (35.3-26 mm). A. leucotrichus EO demonstrated strong to moderate inhibitory activity, with inhibition zones ranging from 31.5 mm to 10 mm. The quantitative analysis through minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum microbicidal concentration determinations further confirmed these findings (Table 3). T. maroccanus essential oil demonstrated strong antibacterial activity, with a MIC of 97.65 µg/mL against Bacillus cereus and Listeria monocytogenes. The MMC for L. monocytogenes was also 97.65 µg/mL indicating its strong bactericidal effect. Furthermore, TM EO exhibited significant antifungal activity, with a MIC of 195.31 µg/mL against both Candida krusei and Candida parapsilosis. In contrast, Ammodaucus leucotrichus EO demonstrated moderate antibacterial activity, with a MIC of 390.62 µg/mL against B. cereus and L. monocytogenes. Regarding Candida species, AL EO exhibited MIC values of 390.62 µg/mL against C. krusei and 781.25 µg/mL against C. parapsilosis.
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Microbicidal Concentration (MMC) of Essential Oils and Antibiotics (µg/mL).
3.3. Interaction effects of double EOs combinations
The analysis of the Fractional Inhibitory Concentration Index revealed varying degrees of interaction, as presented in Table 4. The M1 (1:3) exhibited antagonistic effects against B. cereus, L. monocytogenes and C. parapsilosis (FICI = 5), indicating that a higher proportion of A. leucotrichus may interfere with the antimicrobial efficacy of T. maroccanus. The M2 (1:1) displayed an indifferent effect (FICI= 1.25-2.5) against all tested strains, suggesting no significant interaction at equal concentrations. Notably, the M3 (3:1) demonstrated partial synergy (FICI = 0.75) against C. krusei, suggesting that a higher concentration of T. maroccanus enhances antifungal activity.
3.4. Antioxidant properties
The antioxidant activity of T. maroccanus, A. leucotrichus and their mixtures was assessed using two complementary tests, DPPH and RP. The results reveal variations in efficacy compared to the standards, ascorbic acid and quercetin (Table 5). In the DPPH assay, TM EO and the three mixtures demonstrated strong antioxidant potential, with IC50 values ranging from 0.15 ± 0.01 mg/mL to 0.2 ± 0.08 mg/mL. Among the tested oils T. maroccanus exhibited the strongest radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 0.15 ± 0.01 mg/mL), outperforming ascorbic acid (IC50 = 0.3 ± 0.02 mg/mL). In contrast, A. leucotrichus EO showed a weaker radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 1.4 ± 0.25mg/mL). The RP assay further support the superior antioxidant properties of T. maroccanus (EC50 = 2.41 mg/mL), close to that of quercetin (EC50 = 2.31 mg/mL). Whereas A. leucotrichus displayed lower activity (EC50 = 5.5 mg/mL). Furthermore, all three mixtures exhibited strong reducing abilities (EC50 = 2.32-2.37 mg/mL). The strong antioxidant activity of these mixtures suggests that blending these oils may enhance their overall antioxidant potential.
4. Discussion
The global rise of antimicrobial resistance has become a critical public health challenge, threatening the efficacy of conventional antibiotics and urging the search for alternative therapeutic strategies. Among these alternatives, essential oils have attracted significant attention due to their rich chemical diversity and proven biological activities. The present study investigated the essential oils of Thymus maroccanus and Ammodaucus leucotrichus, focusing on their chemical composition, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, as well as their potential synergistic interactions.
The chemical profile of Thymus maroccanus has been shown to be consistent with that of previous studies, with some variations in the composition of carvacrol (64.1-70.1%), p-cymene (11.3-6.5%), γ-terpinene (7.9-6.8%), α-pinene (5.5-3.7%), α-terpinene (1.8-1.2%), and thymol (0-0.5%) (Alaoui et al., 2014; Zerrifi et al., 2020).
In contrast, the EO of Ammodaucus leucotrichus was characterized by a high concentration of perillaldehyde and limonene. These results are in accordance with the studies of Hajib et al. (2020) and Halla et al. (2018).
The strong antimicrobial activity observed of T. maroccanus aligns with previous reports showing significant inhibitory effects against Gram-positive bacteria and Candida albicans (Belaqziz et al., 2013; Fadli et al., 2012). A. leucotrichus essential oil displayed moderate to strong inhibitory activity, in agreement with the findings of El-Haci et al. (2014) and Louail et al. (2016). The antimicrobial potential of these essential oils may be is associated with their high concentrations in monoterpenic compounds, which exert their impacts by breaking down the microbial cell membrane through causing the depolarization and increasing the membrane permeability that leads to intracellular leakage and eventually to cell death (El Hachlafi et al., 2023).
Regarding synergistic interactions, the investigation based on the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) revealed results in line with previous studies including combinations of A. leucotrichus with T. vulgaris or L. maroccana, which detailed synergistic impacts against S. aureus and E. coli, whereas antagonism was noted against P. aeruginosa (Soulaimani et al., 2022). The synergistic activity observed is likely attributed to the combined effects of perillaldehyde, carvacrol, and thymol, which interfere with critical cellular processes by destabilizing membrane-associated proteins and phospholipids, inhibiting the respiratory chain, blocking oxidative phosphorylation, impairing nucleic acid synthesis, and depleting essential intracellular metabolites (Angane et al., 2022). However, the antagonistic interactions observed in certain combinations may result from competitive binding to bacterial membrane receptors or opposing effects on microbial metabolic pathways (Cho et al., 2020). The variability in interaction profiles underscore the complexity of EO combinatory effects, which may be influenced by differences in bacterial membrane composition, metabolic responses, and chemical interactions between EO constituents.
In terms of antioxidant activity, the DPPH radical scavenging test results are consistent with previous reports (Alaoui et al., 2014; El Bouzidi et al., 2013), which documented for T. maroccanus IC50 values of 60.72 ± 1.93 μg/mL and 182.86 ± 2.84 μg/mL, respectively. Similarly, the results for A. leucotrichus essential oil align with those of Dahmane et al. (2017) and Manssouri et al. (2020) , who reported relatively low antioxidant capacities. In addition, for the reducing power (RP) assay, previous studies (Alaoui et al., 2014; El Bouzidi et al., 2013) also reported strong ferric reducing abilities for T. maroccanus, with EC50 values of 59.50 ± 1.08 μg/mL and 139.31 ± 1.08 μg/mL, respectively, while for A. leucotrichus studies by Hajib et al. (2020) and Halla et al. (2018) obtained EC50 values of 4.55 ± 0.08 mg/mL and 3.12 ± 0.24 mg/mL, respectively. Notably, the strong antioxidant activity observed in the essential oil mixtures suggests a potential synergistic interaction between their chemical constituents. To date, no studies have been carried out to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of this specific essential oil combination. However, the findings support the hypothesis that antioxidant activity can result from complex interactions that may be additive or synergistic between the various major and minor bioactive components present in essential oils (Jamali et al., 2013).
In conclusion, this study highlights the potential of T. maroccanus and A. leucotrichus essential oils as valuable natural sources of antimicrobial and antioxidant agents. However, further research is needed to elucidate their individual and combined mechanisms of action and to assess their toxicity and stability to optimize their applications for clinical and industrial fields.
Data Availability Statement
The research data analyzed in this study are not publicly available by any means.
References
- ADAMS, R.P., 2017. Identification of essential oil components by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. 4th ed. Carol Stream: Allured Publ..
-
ALAOUI, C., KASRATI, A., BEKKOUCHE, K. and HASSANI, L., 2014. Cultivation and the application of inorganic fertilizer modifies essential oil composition in two Moroccan species of Thymus. Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 62, pp. 113-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.017
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.08.017 -
ANGANE, M., SWIFT, S., HUANG, K., BUTTS, C.A. and QUEK, S.Y., 2022. Essential oils and their major components: an updated review on antimicrobial activities, mechanism of action and their potential application in the food industry. Foods, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 464. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030464 PMid:35159614.
» https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030464 -
BELAQZIZ, R., BAHRI, F., ROMANE, A., ANTONIOTTI, S., FERNANDEZ, X. and DUÑACH, E., 2013. Essential oil composition and antibacterial activity of the different parts of thymus maroccanus ball: an endemic species in morocco. Natural Product Research, vol. 27, no. 18, pp. 1700-1704. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2013.768989 PMid:23425125.
» https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2013.768989 -
BOUYAHYA, A., ABRINI, J., ET-TOUYS, A., BAKRI, Y. and DAKKA, N., 2017. Indigenous knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in the North-West of Morocco and their biological activities. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, vol. 13, pp. 9-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eujim.2017.06.004
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eujim.2017.06.004 -
BRANCO, J., MIRANDA, I.M. and RODRIGUES, A.G., 2023. Candida parapsilosis virulence and antifungal resistance mechanisms: a comprehensive review of key determinants. Journal of Fungi, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9010080 PMid:36675901.
» https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9010080 -
BYRNE, V., HOFER, E., VALLIM, D.C. and ALMEIDA, R.C.C., 2016. Occurrence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of listeria monocytogenes isolated from vegetables. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology : Publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 438-443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjm.2015.11.033 PMid:26991279.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjm.2015.11.033 -
CHO, T.J., PARK, S.M., YU, H., SEO, G.H., KIM, H.W., KIM, S.A. and RHEE, M.S., 2020. Recent advances in the application of antibacterial complexes using essential oils. Molecules, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071752 PMid:32290228.
» https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071752 -
CHRAIBI, M., FADIL, M., FARAH, A., LEBRAZI, S. and FIKRI-BENBRAHIM, K., 2021. Antimicrobial combined action of Mentha pulegium, Ormenis mixta and Mentha piperita essential oils against S. aureus, E. coli and C. tropicalis: application of mixture design methodology. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft + Technologie, vol. 145, pp. 111352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111352
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111352 -
DAHMANE, D., DOB, T., KRIMAT, S., NOUASRI, A., METIDJI, H. and KSOURI, A., 2017. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the essential oils of medicinal plant Ammodaucus leucotrichus from Algeria. The Journal of Essential Oil Research, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 48-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2016.1201015
» https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2016.1201015 -
EL BOUZIDI, L., JAMALI, C.A., BEKKOUCHE, K., HASSANI, L., WOHLMUTH, H., LEACH, D. and ABBAD, A., 2013. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oils obtained from wild and cultivated Moroccan Thymus species. Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 43, pp. 450-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.07.063
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.07.063 -
EL HACHLAFI, N., BENKHAIRA, N., AL-MIJALLI, S.H., MRABTI, H.N., ABDNIM, R., ABDALLAH, E.M., JEDDI, M., BNOUHAM, M., LEE, L.H., ARDIANTO, C., MING, L.C., BOUYAHYA, A. and FIKRI-BENBRAHIM, K., 2023. Phytochemical analysis and evaluation of antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities of essential oils from Moroccan medicinal plants: Mentha suaveolens, Lavandula stoechas, and Ammi visnaga. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy = Biomédecine & Pharmacothérapie, vol. 164, pp. 114937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114937 PMid:37267633.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114937 -
EL-HACI, I.A., BEKHECHI, C., ATIK-BEKKARA, F., MAZARI, W., GHERIB, M., BIGHELLI, A., CASANOVA, J. and TOMI, F., 2014. Antimicrobial activity of Ammodaucus leucotrichus fruit oil from Algerian Sahara. Natural Product Communications, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 711-712. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X1400900533 PMid:25026729.
» https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X1400900533 -
FADLI, M., SAAD, A., SAYADI, S., CHEVALIER, J., MEZRIOUI, N.E., PAGÈS, J.M. and HASSANI, L., 2012. Antibacterial activity of Thymus maroccanus and Thymus broussonetii essential oils against nosocomial infection - Bacteria and their synergistic potential with antibiotics. Phytomedicine : International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 464-471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2011.12.003 PMid:22257599.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2011.12.003 -
HAJIB, A., NOUNAH, I., OUBIHI, A., HARHAR, H., GHARBY, S., KARTAH, B., BOUGRIN, K. and CHARROUF, Z., 2020. chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils from the fruits of Cuminum cyminum Journal of Essential Oil-Bearing Plants, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 474-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2020.1790427
» https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2020.1790427 -
HALLA, N., HELENO, S.A., COSTA, P., FERNANDES, I.P., CALHELHA, R.C., BOUCHERIT, K., RODRIGUES, A.E. and FERREIRA, I.C.F.R., 2018. Chemical pro fi le and bioactive properties of the essential oil isolated from Ammodaucus leucotrichus fruits growing in Sahara and its evaluation as a cosmeceutical ingredient. Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 119, pp. 249-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.04.043
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.04.043 -
JAMALI, C.A., KASRATI, A., BEKKOUCHE, K., HASSANI, L., WOHLMUTH, H., LEACH, D. and ABBAD, A., 2013. Phenological changes to the chemical composition and biological activity of the essential oil from Moroccan endemic thyme (Thymus maroccanus Ball). Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 49, pp. 366-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.05.016
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.05.016 -
JELDI, L., TAARABT, K.O., MAZRI, M.A., OUAHMANE, L. and ALFEDDY, M.N., 2022. Chemical composition, antifungal and antioxidant activities of wild and cultivated Origanum compactum essential oils from the municipality of Chaoun, Morocco. South African Journal of Botany, vol. 147, pp. 852-858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.03.034
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.03.034 -
KAUR, R., GUPTA, T.B., BRONLUND, J., SINGH, J. and KAUR, L., 2024. Synthesis and characterisation of Mānuka and rosemary oil-based nano-entities and their application in meat. Food Chemistry, vol. 436, pp. 137600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137600 PMid:37837683.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137600 - LOUAIL, Z., KAMELI, A., BENABDELKADER, T., BOUTI, K., HAMZA, K. and KRIMAT, S., 2016. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of essential oil of Ammodaucus leucotrichus Coss. & Dur. seeds. Journal of Materials & Environmental Sciences, vol. 7, pp. 2689-2695.
-
MANSSOURI, M., ZNINI, M. and MAJIDI, L., 2020. Studies on the antioxidant activity of essential oil and various extracts of Ammodaucus leucotrichus Coss. & Dur. Fruits from Morocco. Journal of Taibah University for Science : JTUSCI, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 124-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/16583655.2019.1710394
» https://doi.org/10.1080/16583655.2019.1710394 -
NIKKHAH, M. and HASHEMI, M., 2020. Boosting antifungal effect of essential oils using combination approach as an efficient strategy to control postharvest spoilage and preserving the jujube fruit quality. Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 164, pp. 111159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2020.111159
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2020.111159 - National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards – NCCLS. 1997. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk Susceptibility Test 6th ed. Approved Standard M2-A6, Wayne, PA.
-
RAZZOUK, S., MAZRI, M.A., JELDI, L., MNASRI, B., OUAHMANE, L. and ALFEDDY, M.N., 2022. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from three Mediterranean plants against eighteen pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Pharmaceutics, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 1608. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14081608 PMid:36015234.
» https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14081608 -
SAEED, K., PASHA, I., JAHANGIR CHUGHTAI, M.F., ALI, Z., BUKHARI, H. and ZUHAIR, M., 2022. Application of essential oils in food industry: challenges and innovation. The Journal of Essential Oil Research, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2022.2029776
» https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2022.2029776 -
SCHOENFELD, D., LEE, D., ARRINGTON, J.A., GREENE, J. and KLINKOVA, O., 2022. Bacillus Cereus bacteremia complicated by brain abscess in a severely immunocompromised patient: addressing importance of early recognition and challenges in diagnosis. IDCases, vol. 29, pp. e01525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01525 PMid:35712054.
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01525 -
SOULAIMANI, B., ABBAD, I., VARONI, E., IRITI, M., MEZRIOUI, N.E., HASSANI, L. and ABBAD, A., 2022. Optimization of antibacterial activity of essential oil mixture obtained from three medicinal plants: evaluation of synergism with conventional antibiotics and nanoemulsion effectiveness. South African Journal of Botany, vol. 151, pp. 900-908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.11.010
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.11.010 -
SOULAIMANI, B., NAFIS, A., KASRATI, A., ROCHDI, A., MEZRIOUI, N.E., ABBAD, A. and HASSANI, L., 2019. Chemical composition, antimicrobial activity and synergistic potential of essential oil from endemic Lavandula maroccana (Mill.). South African Journal of Botany, vol. 125, pp. 202-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.07.030
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.07.030 -
VASIREDDY, L., BINGLE, L.E.H. and DAVIES, M.S., 2018. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils against multidrug-resistant clinical isolates of the burkholderia cepacia complex. PLoS One, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. e0201835. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201835 PMid:30071118.
» https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201835 -
ZERRIFI, S.E.A., KASRATI, A., REDOUANE, E.M., TAZART, Z., KHALLOUFI, F.E., ABBAD, A., OUDRA, B., CAMPOS, A. and VASCONCELOS, V., 2020. Essential oils from Moroccan plants as promising ecofriendly tools to control toxic cyanobacteria blooms. Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 143, pp. 111922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111922
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111922
Edited by
-
Editor:
Takako Matsumura Tundisi
