Efficacy of three natural extracts for brown rot management in peach in MexicoAbstract:
This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro and field efficacy of three commercial extracts -Melaleuca alternifolia, Larrea tridentata, and - Citrus aurantiumagainst three isolates of Monilinia fructicola collected from peach orchards in Puebla, Mexico (Tepeyahualco, Acajete, Chiautzingo). The sensitivity of M. fructicola strains to these extracts was assessed by measuring inhibition of mycelial growth. Field trials were conducted in commercial orchards with various peach cultivars in Puebla. The extracts were applied at recommended commercial doses using a manual knapsack sprayer at intervals of 30, 14, 7 and 3 daysbefore harvest. Results indicated that the C. aurantium extract exhibited high antifungal activity in vitro, achieving both a reduction and complete inhibition of conidia germination and mycelial growth across all three strains. Melaleucaalternifolia,Larrea tridentata, and Citrus aurantium reduced M. fructicola postharvest incidence by approximately 50% compared to the control. C. aurantium extract proved to be the most effective in controlling M. fructicola in the Tepeyahualco and Acajete orchards in both immersion and field trials.
Index terms
Antifungal activity; Monilinia fructicola; citrus extracts; post-harvest management; extracts
Resumo:
Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a eficacia, in vitro e em campo, de três extratos comerciais - Melaleuca alternifolia, Larrea tridentata e Citrus aurantium - contra três isolados de Monilinia fructicola coletados em pomares de pêssego, em Puebla-México (Tepeyahualco, Acajete, Chiautzingo). A sensibilidade das cepas de M. fructicola a esses extratos foi avaliada pela medição da inibição do crescimento micelial. Foram realizados testes de campo em pomares comerciais, com várias cultivares de pêssego, em Puebla. Os extratos foram aplicados nas doses comerciais recomendadas, usando um pulverizador costal manual, em intervalos de 30; 14; 7e 3 dias antes da colheita. Os resultados indicaram que o extrato de C.aurantium apresentou alta atividade antifúngica in vitro, alcançando tanto a reduçãoquanto a inibição completa da germinação de conídios e do crescimento micelial, nas três cepas. Melaleuca alternifolia, Larrea tridentata e Citrus aurantium reduziram a incidência pós-colheita de M. fructicola em aproximadamente 50%, em comparação ao controle. O extrato de C. aurantium provou ser o mais eficaz no controle de M. fructicola nos pomares de Tepeyahualco e Acajete, em ensaios de imersão e de campo
Termos para indexação
Atividade antifúngica; Monilinia fructicola; extratos cítricos; manejo pós-colheita; extratos
Introduction
The peach, a widely cultivated fruit globally, necessitates effective disease management due to its high susceptibility to fungal infections, particularly brown rot caused by Monilinia spp., which can inflict substantial damage in both pre and post-harvest stages of stone fruit.
Under conditions favorable for the pathogen, the incidence of brown rot can reach up to 80%, resulting in considerable losses during storage (USALL et al., 2015).
Brown rot is attributed to three primary species: M. laxa, M. fructigena and M. fructicola, the latter being the most destructive and the species identified in Mexico (ALVAREZ, 1976).
Chemical control of brown rot is generally applied in the field. However, the overuse of chemical fungicides has led to environmental contamination, risks to human health, and the selection of fungicide-resistant pathogens (ROMANAZZI et al., 2016).
Monilinia spp., exhibit moderate resistance, as classified by the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC). To reliance on chemical fungicides and minimise environmental contamination in controlling Monilinia spp., biofungicides, natural extracts, and resistance inducers have been investigated (FU et al., 2017). Compared to chemical or synthetic fungicides, natural extracts are biodegradable, environmentally friendly, and can be applied pre-harvest.
Over the past two decades, interest in using natural compounds and resistance inducers for disease management has grown considerably. Several compounds that have been evaluated for managing brown rot, including chitosan, oligochitosan, methyl jasmonate, potassium phosphite, and natural extracts (ROMANAZZI et al., 2016).
For instance, Larrea divaricata extract has shown significant antimicrobial activity against M. fructicola mycelial growth (BOITEUX et al., 2018). Additionally, orange extract has demonstrated mycelial inhibition and decreased conidia germination in M. fructicola, Botrytis cinerea, and Alternaria alternata (HÉRNANDEZ et al., 2020).
The use of plant extracts with antifungal properties is particularly appealing due to their natural origin and low toxicity to both human health and the environment.
Consequently, these novel disease management approaches show promising potential for controlling various species of phytopathogenic fungi in post-harvest applications and may serve as suitable alternatives to conventional methods (PALOU et al., 2016).
The objective of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo sensitivity of three commercial products based on tea tree (Malaleuca alternifolia), citrus (Citrus aurantium) and creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) extracts against three isolates of Monilinia fructicola.
Field trials were conducted in commercial orchards with different peach cultivars in the state of Puebla, with applications carried out in the field several days before harvest.
Materials and Methods
Molecular identification and growth parameters of Monilinia fructicolaisolates
In 2023, peaches (Prunus persica Batsch.) exhibiting typical symptoms of brown rot were collected from commercial orchards located in Acajete (19°08’06’’N and 97°56’42’’W), Chiautzingo (19°12’45’’N and 98°27’52’’W) and Tepeyahualco (19°31’32” N, 97°31’15” W) in the state of Puebla, Mexico. Monilinia spp., were isolated and characterised as described by Nativitas-Lima et al. (2021).
From the isolates obtained, a representative strain from each orchard - Acajete (AM22), Chiautzingo (CM22) and Tepeyahualco (TM22) - was selected for in vitro and in vivo testing. For molecular characterisation, DNA was extracted from Monilinia isolates with seven days of mycelial growth, following the protocol outlined by Rojas-Martínez et al. (2016).
The transcribed space 2 region was amplified using ITS1/ITS4 primers (HU et al., 2011). Purified DNA fragments were sent to Macrogen® (Korea) for sequencing. The sequences obtained were aligned with the NCBI database using BLAST (http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Blast.cgi) and subsequently registered.
Three growth parameters were evaluated for each Monilinia isolate: colony growth rate, total conidia production and visual inspection of colony characteristics on PDA medium, following the EPPO PM 7/18 standard (3) (“PM 7/18 (3) Monilinia fructicola,” 2020).
To calculate colony growth rate (cm day-1), a 5 mm mycelial disk was placed on Petri dishes containing PDA (BIOXON®). Plates were incubated at 28±1 °C in complete darkness.
The colony diameter was measured daily, and the growth rate was determined as the slope of the linear regression line obtained by plotting diameter (cm) against time (days). To estimate conidial production, conidia were scraped from the PDA dishes with sterile water containing 0.01% Tween-80, filtered through sterile gauze, and counted using a hemocytometer. The concentration of conidia (conidia mL-1) was calculated and expressed as total conidia.
Preparation of conidial suspensions for the tests
Conidial suspensions were prepared from each Monilinia isolate (AM22, CM22, TM22) by gently rubbing the surface of 7-day-old mycelial cultures grown on PDA with sterile water containing 0.01% Tween-80 (w/v).
The inoculum was filtered through two layers of sterile gauze to reduce the presence of mycelial fragments. Conidia were then counted using a haemocytometer and adjusted to the required concentration.
In vitro tests using plant extracts with antifungal activity
The sensitivity of Monilinia isolates to commercial extracts of Malaleuca alternifolia (Timorex Gold®, containing: tea tree oil 23.8%, inert ingredient 76.2%), Citrus aurantium (Excitrus®, containing: citrus extract 9.99%, quercetin 0.01%, inert ingredient 90%), and Larrea tridentata (Progranic Mega®, containing: creosote bush extract 95%, inert ingredient 5%) was assessed by measuring inhibition of mycelial growth in each isolate (AM22, CM22 and TM22).
A stock suspension of each extract was prepared in sterile distilled water and then added to PDA after sterilisation to achieve the following final concentrations: Melaleuca alternifolia (250, 350, 450, 550, 650 and 750 μL L-1), Larrea tridentata (50, 150, 250, 450, 650 and 750 μL L-1) and Citrus aurantium (1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 μL L-1).
Based on previous preliminary studies, final concentrations were determined (data not shown). Petri dishes with PDA but without extracts or fungicide served as controls. All Petri dishes were prepared 24 hours prior to use and storage in the dark. Mycelial disks (5 mm in diameter) were excised from the actively growing margins of five-day-old colonies of each isolate and place centrally on Petri dishes containing the various extracts and concentrations. The dishes were then incubated at 28 °C in continuous darkness.
For each measurement, colony diameter was adjusted by subtracting the initial 5 mm of the mycelial disk and measured in two perpendicular directions. The experimental design was completely randomised, with three replicates per treatment, and the entire experiment was conducted twice.
The percentage of germinated conidia was assessed using optical microscopy, following the method described by Balsells- Llauradó et al. (2021), with some modifications.
A 10 μL drop of the conidial suspension (105 conidia mL-1) was placed on PDA in Petri dishes prepared for each treatment, and sampling was conducted after 24 hours.
To halt germination, 1 mL of 25% ethanol was applied to a filter paper placed on the lid of each Petri dish. Conidia were considered germinated when the germ tube was at least twice the length of the conidium.
Bioassay on peaches
Peach fruits (Prunus persica Batsch) were purchased and hand-harvested from a commercial orchard in Puebla, México. Fruits at physiological maturity, without visual mechanical damage, were colleted and immediately transported to the laboratory.
To disinfest the peaches and eliminate field pathogens, fruits were immersed in a 2% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite solution, then air-dried for three hours. In this study, extracts of M. alternifolia, C. aurantium, and L. tridentata were tested at commercial doses.
Selected peaches from each group were immersed in a solution containing each extract for 15 minutes, followed by air drying for two hours at 20 °C. Next, fruits were inoculated on the surface with 10 μL of a conidial suspension (1 × 105 mL-1) of each M. fructicola isolate (AM22, CM22 and TM22).
Three groups of fruits (one of each Monilinia isolate) were inoculated without prior treatment with the extracts, and an additional group – untreated with extracts and uninoculated with the fungus - served as the absolute control.
Fruits were stored in humid chambers inside plastic boxes lined with moistened filter paper (distilled water), under ambient conditions (26 ± 1 °C, 97 ± 3% RH) for 8 days. Disease incidence was assessed after storage. Each treatment included three replicates of ten fruits, and the experiment was conducted twice.
Field treatments
Trials were conducted in commercial orchards with various peach varieties in Puebla (see Table 1). Three commercial extracts were evaluated: Timorex Gold® (Malaleuca alternifolia), Excitrus® (Citrus aurantium), and Progranic Mega® (Larrea tridentata) at doses of 2.5 ml·L-1. Extracts were applied using a manual knapsack sprayer at intervals of 30, 14, 7, and 3 days before harvest.
A control group, sprayed with water only, was also included. Orchard trials were carried out on 10-year-old peach trees, grafted onto Franco rootstocks and planted at a spacing of 2.5 × 2 m. Fertilisation, irrigation, and other cultural practices were managed by the commercial growers.
The plots were arranged in a completely randomised block design with four replicates per treatment, each replicate consisting of ten trees. Untreated barrier trees were used to separate the treatments and replicates.
Evaluation of the effect of postharvest treatments
Fifty fruits per treatment were collected, ensuring they were free from physical damage and asymptomatic. Samples were then transported to the Laboratory of Agricultural Mycology of the Autonomous University of Chapingo. To disinfest the fruits, they were immersed in a 2% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite solution.
For inoculation, the methodology described by Nativitas- Lima et al. (2021) was followed. The fruits were placed in a humid chamber at 26 ± 2 °C, and lesion diameter was measured at 12-, 24-, 36- and 48-hours post-inoculation using a digital vernier caliper (Truper®).
Using the lesion diameter area, the area under the disease progression curve (AUDPC) was calculated with the trapezoidal integration method (CAMBELL; MADDEN, 1991) as shown in the following equation:
where n is the number of disease measurements over time, (Yi+1 + Yi)/2 represents the midpoint between Yi and Yi+1, which quantifies the amount of disease in a given time interval and corresponds to the height of each rectangle, and Xi+1 - Xi is the time between two disease evaluations, representing the width of each trapezoid.
Statistical analysis
The effective concentration required to inhibit 50% of mycelial growth (EC50) for each isolate, extract, or fungicide was calculated using a dose-response curve fitted to the data with logistic regression in the R software package. Data normality was assessed and verified with the Shapiro–Wilk test.
The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was defined as the lowest concentration that completely inhibited fungal growth after 24 hours of incubation.
The effect of the treatments was analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a significance level of P ≤ 0.05. When statistically significant differences were detected, mean comparisons were conducted using the LSD test (α=0.05). All analyses were performed with SAS (Statistical Analysis System) software, Version 9.0.
Results
Molecular identification and growth parameters of Monilinia fructicola isolates
Sequences of the 5.8S ribosomal RNA region, each 512 bp in length, were obtained.
Sequences from each strain were deposited in the NCBI database with the following access numbers: OR452934 for the Tepeyahualco strain, OR512531 for the Chiautzingo strain, and OR452935 for the Acajete strain. Analysis of these sequences using the NCBI BLASTn tool showed 100% similarity to Monilinia fructicola (accession numbers: MN689861, MK566185, LC312677), confirming the identification of all three Monilinia strains as M. fructicola.
The isolates obtained from each orchard -Tepeyahualco (TM22), Chiautzingo (CM22) and Acajete (AM22)- exhibited significant differences in the evaluated growth parameters (Table 2). The TM22 colony showed a 35% higher growth rate compared to the AM22 strain. In terms of conidial production, the TM22 strain also outperformed the CM22 strain. Visual inspection of the M. fructicola isolates revealed that all the three strains displayed concentric rings and lacked a lobed margin.
Mycelial inhibition of Monilinia fructicola in vitro
To assess the in vitro efficacy of the natural extracts against the three strains of M.fructicola, their EC50 and MIC values were compared. All extracts showed inhibitory effects of M. fructicola strains; however, the percentage of inhibition varied between strains; however, the percentage of inhibition varied between strains and across the extracts used (Table 3). The EC50 values, in ascending order by extract, were as follows: Citrus aurantium, Malaleuca alternifolia and Larrea tridentata. The EC50 values for the TM22 strain were statistically different from those of the other two strains (P<0.001).
The AM22 strain exhibited the lowest EC50 values across all extracts evaluated.
The EC50 values for the M. alternifolia extract against the three M. fructicola isolates ranged from 461.5 to 423 μL L-1 (Table 3) and MIC of 1000 μL L-1 for complete mycelial inhibition. The L. tridentata extract showed EC50 values between 600.2 and 467.9 μL L-1, with an MIC of 1200 μL L-1. For C. aurantium extracts, the EC50 values across all isolates ranged from 5.26 to 4.38 μL L-1, with an MIC of 10 μL L-1 for mycelial inhibition of M.fructicola.
Conidia germination
In this study, C. aurantium, M. alternifoliaand L. tridentata extracts showed significant activity against spore germination of M. fructicola compared to the control (Figure 1).
Effect of Malaleuca alternifolia, Citrus aurantium and Larrea tridentata extract concentrations on the germination of Monilinia fructicola conidia in vitro. CM22 = Chiautzingo isolate. AM22 = Acajete isolate. TM22 = Tepeyahualco isolate, Puebla, Mexico in 2023.
Higher concentrations of C. aurantium exhibited a stronger effect on conidial germination.
Conidial germination decreased across all three strains as the concentrations of the tested extracts increased.
The C.aurantium extract inhibited 50% of conidial germination at a concentration of 8 ppm and achieved 100% inhibition at 10 ppm.
In contrast the L. tridentata extract did not reduce conidial germination by 50% even at 550 ppm, while M. alternifolia only managed to inhibit 15% of conidial germination at the highest concentration tested.
Bioassay on peaches
All extracts evaluated through post-harvest immersion demonstrated a reduction in brown rot incidence after eight days of assessment (Figure 2). The C. aurantium extract reduced brown rot incidence by up to 57% in the post-harvest immersion tests compared to the control, showing consistent effectiveness across the three strains evaluated.
The L.tridentata extract reduced incidence by 50%, while M. alternifolia achieved a 46% reduction in brown rot incidence. All three strains exhibited significant differences across the extracts tested. For the TM22 strain, incidences of brown rot were recorded at 50, 65 and 83% with C. aurantium, L. tridentata and M. alternifolia, respectively. The CM22 strain showed an incidence of 50% with C.aurantium and 82% with L. tridentata and M. alternifolia. The AM22 strain presented incidences of 68% with L. tridentata and 50% with both C. aurantium and M. alternifolia.
Effect of M. alternifolia, L. tridentata and C. aurantium extracts applied at 1 ml/L on the incidence of Brown Rot caused by Monilinia fructicola in peaches. Bioassay showing the effect of fruit immersion in the extracts after eight days of storage under room temperature conditions (26 ± 1 °C, 97 ± 3% RH) for 8 days in 2023.
Efficacy of extracts application in the field
The extracts applied in the field showed statistically significant differences in the evaluated epidemiological parameters (P < 0.001, Table 4). In the control group, M. fructicola incidence reached 100% at 48 hours post-inoculation. All extracts reduced M. fructicolaincidence by approximately 50% compared to the control (Figure 3). The incidence of M. fructicola decay in Atlax variety peaches was between 40% and 50% for the three extracts tested, with L. tridentata and C. aurantium treatments showing a 60% reduction in incidence in the Tepeyahualco orchard.
M.alternifolia reduced brown rot incidence by 60% in Oro de Tlaxcala variety peaches in the Chiautzingo orchard. In Diamante variety peaches in the Acajete orchard, L. tridentata achieved a 60% reduction in brown rot incidence.
Efficacy of the extracts applied in the field and their effect on M. fructicola incidence in post-harvest during the 2023 production cycle. Values with different letters above the bars are significantly different according to the LSD test for mean comparison (P < 0.05).
Treatment with C. aurantium extract reduced the severity of M. fructicola in post-harvest by 52 %, 9% and 14% in Tepeyahualco, Chiautzingo and Acajete, respectively. M. alternifolia treatment reduced severity by 23%, 21% and 8% in Tepeyahualco, Chiautzingo and Acajete, respectively. The L. tridentata extract decreased severity by 17%, 6% and 1% in Tepeyahualco, Chiautzingo, and Acajete, respectively, all compared to the control.
In the Tepeyahualco and Acajete orchads, with Atlax and Diamante peach varieties, respectively, the C. aurantium extract significantly reduced the severity of M. fructicola and was the only extract showing a statistically significant difference from the control(P<0.001).
In contrast, the M. alternifolia and L. tridentata extracts did not show statistically significant differences compared to the control.
In the Chiautzingo orchard, with the Oro de Tlaxcala variety, the M. alternifolia extract was the most effective treatment, showing a statistically significant difference from the control(P<0.001). The other two extracts also reduced severity but did not demonstrate statistically significant differences compared to the control. The area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) showed significant differences between the evaluated extracts P<0.001), with the C. aurantium extract presented the lowest AUDPC values across all three experimental orchards (Table 4).
Discussion
The search for alternatives to reduce agrochemical usage has sparked interest in developing natural antifungal products for the sustainable management of pre- and post-harvest diseases (ROMANAZZI et al., 2016).
Numerous studies have assessed plant extracts for their antifungal properties, as the phenolic compounds found in plants offer a potential method for controlling post-harvest diseases. This study evaluated the efficacy of aqueous extracts from three plants (C.aurantium, M. alternifolia, and L. tridentata) against three strains of M. fructicola isolated from local orchards. Their effectiveness was tested on mycelial growth inhibition, conidial germination, fruit immersion treatments, and under field conditions across different orchards in Puebla.
The isolates obtained from commercial orchards in Tepeyahualco, Chiautzingo, and Acajete, were identified as M. fructicola.
The three isolates showed significant statistical differences in the evaluated growth parameters (Table 2). The highest growth rate and greatest conidial production were observed in strain TM22 (1.93 cm day-1), which exceeded the values reported by Balsells-Llauradó et al. (2021) for isolates from Spain. Conversely, the growth rate was comparable to those reported in Virginia, USA (JANISIEWICZ et al., 2013).
The growth characteristics on PDA, combined with the severity observed in the fruit, may prove useful in selecting disease management strategies tailored to each orchard.
The C. aurantium extract demonstrated strong antifungal activity in vitro, resulting in a significant reduction and complete inhibition in conidial germination and mycelial growth across the three strains evaluated.
The EC50 required to inhibit the development of Monilinia fructicola was substantially lower with the C. aurantium extract compared to the concentrations of the M. alternifolia and L. tridentataextracts used in this study.
The M. alternifolia extract exhibited the least effectiveness in inhibiting conidial germination, which aligns with previous findings on its efficacy against Stemphylium vesicarium germination (TUDELA et al., 2023). Meanwhile, the L.tridentata extract presented the highest EC50 value. Peñuelas-Rubio et al. (2017) reported that a concentration of 750 ppm inhibited 90% of the mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum.
However, in this study, only 50% of the mycelial growth was inhibited at concentrations of 467 – 600 ppm.
The bioassay on peaches revealed differences among the strains of the isolates evaluated. However, it was observed that the citrus extract reduced the incidence of infection in all three isolates after eight days of storage at room temperature (Figure 2).
Bioactive compounds derived from plants, along with other natural substances such as metabolites, volatiles, and active enzymes from selected microorganisms, represented a rich source of antifungal agents. These compounds show promise as potential fungicides for managing post-harvest fungal diseases (BHUTIA, 2015; MATROSE et al., 2021).
In field tests, the C. aurantium extract demonstrated the highest efficacy in controlling M. fructicola in the orchards of Tepeyahualco and Acajete, on the Atlax and Diamante varieties, respectively.
This study confirms the effective inhibition of M.fructicola by a citrus extract. Phenolic compounds present in citrus extracts, primarily ferulic acid and coumaric acid, are known to exhibit antifungal activity (HERNÁNDEZ et al., 2021).
Additionally, natural flavonoids from citrus species, such as hesperidin, naringin, and neohesperidin, have shown antifungal effects against the growth of Aspergillus spp.,Fusarium semitectum and P.expansum (SALAS et al., 2011). Although the precise mode of action of these compounds remains uncleared, it is suggested that their lipophilic properties and hydroxyl groups may disrupt the fuctionality of biological membranes.
Morales et al. (2017), however, proposed that the inhibition of B. cinerea by coumaric acid may be due to its function as an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation, allowing it to permeate cell membranes without compromising their integrity.
In the Chiautzingo orchard, on the Oro de Tlaxcala variety, the most effective treatment was the M. alternifolia extract. This extract is known to disrupt fungal cell membranes (FRAC, 2021) and is recommended for a broad range of ascomycetes fungi.
In a study by Tudela et al. (2023), which evaluated M. alternifoli extract for controlling S. vesicarium in pears, the incidence of this pathogen was reduced; however, its effectiveness declined over time, likely due to the natural degradation of the product, as observed in this experiment.
Promising results observed with antifungal agents in vitro do not always translate to in vivo efficacy, highlighting the necessity of in vivo verification (ROMANAZZI et al., 2016).
Conclusion
In conclusion, our study found that M. fructicola caused brown rot in three orchards located in Puebla, with the Tepeyahualco isolate displaying the highest aggressiveness.
In vitro, commercial extracts Melaleuca alternifolia, Larrea tridentata, and Citrus aurantium demonstrated significant antifungal activity against M. fructicola. C. aurantium extract proved to be the most effective in controlling M. fructicola.
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by the Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías (CONAHCyT) through postdoctoral fellowship number 2708300, CVU: 508529.
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Edited by
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Scientific Editor
Alexandre Pio Viana
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Associate Editor
Jairo Osvaldo Cazetta
