Abstract
Background:
Low back pain (LBP) and urinary incontinence (UI) are highly prevalent among elderly individuals. In young adults, changes in trunk muscle recruitment, as assessed via ultrasound imaging, may be associated with lumbar spine stability.
Objective:
To assess the associations between LBP, UI, and the pattern of transversus abdominis (TrA), internal (IO), and external oblique (EO) muscle recruitment in the elderly as evaluated by ultrasound imaging.
Method:
Fifty-four elderly individuals (mean age: 72±5.2 years) who complained of LBP and/or UI as assessed by the McGill Pain Questionnaire, Incontinence Questionnaire-Short Form, and ultrasound imaging were included in the study. The statistical analysis comprised a multiple linear regression model, and a p-value <0.05 was considered significant.
Results:
The regression models for the TrA, IO, and EO muscle thickness levels explained 2.0% (R2=0.02; F=0.47; p=0.628), 10.6% (R2=0.106; F=3.03; p=0.057), and 10.1% (R2=0.101; F=2.70; p=0.077) of the variability, respectively. None of the regression models developed for the abdominal muscles exhibited statistical significance. A significant and negative association (p=0.018; β=-0.0343) was observed only between UI and IO recruitment.
Conclusion:
These results suggest that age-related factors may have interfered with the findings of the study, thus emphasizing the need to perform ultrasound imaging-based studies to measure abdominal muscle recruitment in the elderly.
elderly; low back pain; urinary incontinence; physical therapy; ultrasound imaging
Introduction
Population aging is occurring worldwide. In Brazil, given the demographic and
epidemiological evolution of chronic diseases, population aging requires constant care
and monitoring and thus increases the demand for health services11. Ferreira GD, Silva MC, Rombaldi AJ, Wrege ED, Siqueira FV, Hallal PC.
Prevalence and associated factors of back pain in adults from southern Brazil: a
population-based study. Rev Bras Fisioter. 2011;15(1):31-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011005000001. PMid:21390471
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011...
.
Low back pain (LBP)22. Stetts DM, Freund JE, Allison SC, Carpenter G. A rehabilitative
ultrasound imaging investigation of lateral abdominal muscle thickness in healthy
aging adults. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2009;32(2):60-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/00139143-200932020-00004. PMid:20039584
http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/00139143-20093...
and urinary incontinence
(UI)33. Eliasson K, Elfving B, Nordgren B, Mattsson E. Urinary incontinence
in women with low back pain. Man Ther. 2008;13(3):206-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2006.12.006. PMid:17363318
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2006.12...
are conditions that strongly affect
functioning in the elderly and hinder the performance of everyday activities, thus
causing physical and emotional distress, incurring high socioeconomic costs, restricting
social participation, and decreasing the quality of life44. Santos CC, Pereira LS, Resende MA, Magno F, Aguiar V. Aplicação da
versão brasileira do questionário de dor Mcgill em idosos com dor crônica. Acta
Fisiátrica. 2006;13(2):75-82.. Moreover, LBP and UI are erroneously considered natural aspects of the
aging process33. Eliasson K, Elfving B, Nordgren B, Mattsson E. Urinary incontinence
in women with low back pain. Man Ther. 2008;13(3):206-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2006.12.006. PMid:17363318
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2006.12...
. Approximately 50-80% of the
general population appears to have experienced at least 1 episode of LBP during their
lifetime11. Ferreira GD, Silva MC, Rombaldi AJ, Wrege ED, Siqueira FV, Hallal PC.
Prevalence and associated factors of back pain in adults from southern Brazil: a
population-based study. Rev Bras Fisioter. 2011;15(1):31-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011005000001. PMid:21390471
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011...
. The prevalence of LBP remains
stable and ranges from 12-33%55. Scheele J, Luijsterburg PA, Ferreira ML, Maher CG, Pereira L, Peul
WC, et al. Back complaints in the elders (BACE); design of cohort studies in primary
care: an international consortium. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;12(1):193-202.
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worldwide, with
rates of approximately 63% in the Brazilian population and 57.7% among elderly
individuals11. Ferreira GD, Silva MC, Rombaldi AJ, Wrege ED, Siqueira FV, Hallal PC.
Prevalence and associated factors of back pain in adults from southern Brazil: a
population-based study. Rev Bras Fisioter. 2011;15(1):31-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011005000001. PMid:21390471
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011...
. The annual incidence of UI in
women ranges from 2-11%, and this disorder is twice as common in women as it is in
men66. Thüroff JW, Abrams P, Andersson KE, Artibani W, Chapple CR, Drake MJ,
et al. EAU guidelines on urinary incontinence. Eur Urol. 2011;59(3):387-400.
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.
In healthy individuals, the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles work synergistically77. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW, Richardson CA, Cooper DH, Markwell SJ, Jull
GA. Co-activation of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles during voluntary
exercises. Neurourol Urodyn. 2001;20(1):31-42.
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8. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW. Contraction of the pelvic floor muscles
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-
1010. Arab AM, Behbahani RB, Lorestani L, Azari A. Assessment of pelvic
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ultrasound. Man Ther. 2010;15(3):235-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2009.12.005.
PMid:20089440
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. However, in the absence of micturition
control, the pelvic muscle activation pattern apparently changes and overloads the spine
stabilizers33. Eliasson K, Elfving B, Nordgren B, Mattsson E. Urinary incontinence
in women with low back pain. Man Ther. 2008;13(3):206-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2006.12.006. PMid:17363318
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2006.12...
,
1010. Arab AM, Behbahani RB, Lorestani L, Azari A. Assessment of pelvic
floor muscle function in women with and without low back pain using transabdominal
ultrasound. Man Ther. 2010;15(3):235-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2009.12.005.
PMid:20089440
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2009.12...
. The pelvic floor muscles play an important
role in the provision of postural lumbo-pelvic stability, which is conferred by
connections of the muscles around the trunk77. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW, Richardson CA, Cooper DH, Markwell SJ, Jull
GA. Co-activation of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles during voluntary
exercises. Neurourol Urodyn. 2001;20(1):31-42.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001)20:1<31::AID-NAU5>3.0.CO;2-P.
PMid:11135380
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001...
,
88. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW. Contraction of the pelvic floor muscles
during abdominal maneuvers. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(8):1081-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.24297. PMid:11494188
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.2429...
,
1010. Arab AM, Behbahani RB, Lorestani L, Azari A. Assessment of pelvic
floor muscle function in women with and without low back pain using transabdominal
ultrasound. Man Ther. 2010;15(3):235-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2009.12.005.
PMid:20089440
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2009.12...
.
Because of its anatomic characteristics, the transversus abdominis (TrA) muscle
preferentially stabilizes the spine1111. Hodges P. Lumbopelvic stability: a functional model of the
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,
1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
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. Moreover, the TrA is the first muscle to be
activated in response to lower and upper limb movements, thus conferring the required
rigidity to the lumbar spine and avoiding undesired segmental movements1313. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira ML, Ferreira MC,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. Effect of 2 lumbar spine postures on transversus
abdominis muscle thickness during a voluntary contraction in people with and without
low back pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2011;34(3):164-72.
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. Delayed TrA activation is observed in younger
adults with chronic LBP and suggests a failure in lumbo-pelvic stabilization1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
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13. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira ML, Ferreira MC,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. Effect of 2 lumbar spine postures on transversus
abdominis muscle thickness during a voluntary contraction in people with and without
low back pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2011;34(3):164-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02.009. PMid:21492751
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02...
-
1414. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira MC, Ferreira ML,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. The effect of lumbar posture on abdominal muscle
thickness during an isometric leg task in people with and without non-specific low
back pain. Man Ther. 2011;16(6):578-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05.010.
PMid:21708475
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05...
.
In the elderly, stabilization failure due to geometric muscle and postural alterations
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, including decreased maximal voluntary
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; reductions in the peak muscle
power1515. Berger MJ, Doherty TJ. Sarcopenia: prevalence, mechanisms, and
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, transverse area, and rate of
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al. Muscle power failure in mobility-limited older adults: preserved single fiber
function despite lower whole muscle size, quality and rate of neuromuscular
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; and reductions in the muscle fiber length (atrophy) and number
(hypoplasia), which particularly affects hybrid fibers1515. Berger MJ, Doherty TJ. Sarcopenia: prevalence, mechanisms, and
functional consequences. Interdiscip Top Gerontol. 2010;37:94-114.
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. Changes might also occur in sensory receptors, peripheral nerves, joints,
and the central nervous system (e.g., decreases in white and gray matter volume and
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. This complex array
of modifications responsible for age-related losses of muscle mass is collectively
called sarcopenia and occurs due to hormonal, nutritional, immunological, and metabolic
alterations1515. Berger MJ, Doherty TJ. Sarcopenia: prevalence, mechanisms, and
functional consequences. Interdiscip Top Gerontol. 2010;37:94-114.
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.
Ultrasound imaging (i.e., rehabilitative ultrasound imaging [RUSI]) has been accepted as
a valid tool for assessing muscle recruitment because similar results can be obtained
via electromyography (EMG) evaluation1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
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,
2020. Teyhen DS. Rehabilitative ultrasound imaging: the roadmap ahead. J
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PMid:17877279
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,
2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
. The main advantage of ultrasound imaging is
its low invasiveness1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02...
,
2020. Teyhen DS. Rehabilitative ultrasound imaging: the roadmap ahead. J
Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37(8):431-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.0107.
PMid:17877279
http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.010...
,
2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
. Physical therapists use ultrasound
measurements to assess muscle function and soft tissue morphology during movement or
while performing specific tasks2020. Teyhen DS. Rehabilitative ultrasound imaging: the roadmap ahead. J
Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37(8):431-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.0107.
PMid:17877279
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,
2222. Whittaker JL, Stokes M. Ultrasound imaging and muscle function. J
Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2011;41(8):572-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2011.3682. PMid:21654098
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. Ultrasound imaging is also used to assist
therapeutic approaches intended to improve neuromuscular function1414. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira MC, Ferreira ML,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. The effect of lumbar posture on abdominal muscle
thickness during an isometric leg task in people with and without non-specific low
back pain. Man Ther. 2011;16(6):578-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05.010.
PMid:21708475
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05...
,
2020. Teyhen DS. Rehabilitative ultrasound imaging: the roadmap ahead. J
Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37(8):431-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.0107.
PMid:17877279
http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.010...
,
2323. Konitzer LN, Gill NW, Koppenhaver SL. Investigation of abdominal
muscle thickness changes after spinal manipulation in patients who meet a clinical
prediction rule for lumbar stabilization. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther.
2011;41(9):666-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2011.3685.
PMid:21765224
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,
2424. Painter EE, Ogle MD, Teyhen DS. Lumbopelvic dysfunction and stress
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http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.2538. PMid:17877286
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.
Several studies have described the neuromuscular trunk muscle patterns via ultrasound
imaging in young adults both with and without a history of low back pain1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02...
13. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira ML, Ferreira MC,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. Effect of 2 lumbar spine postures on transversus
abdominis muscle thickness during a voluntary contraction in people with and without
low back pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2011;34(3):164-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02.009. PMid:21492751
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02...
-
1414. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira MC, Ferreira ML,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. The effect of lumbar posture on abdominal muscle
thickness during an isometric leg task in people with and without non-specific low
back pain. Man Ther. 2011;16(6):578-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05.010.
PMid:21708475
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05...
,
2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
. However, the relevance of these findings in
elderly populations is unknown, as no studies involving ultrasound imaging in elderly
individuals with LBP were found in the reviewed literature22. Stetts DM, Freund JE, Allison SC, Carpenter G. A rehabilitative
ultrasound imaging investigation of lateral abdominal muscle thickness in healthy
aging adults. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2009;32(2):60-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/00139143-200932020-00004. PMid:20039584
http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/00139143-20093...
.
Accordingly, the present study analyzed the association between LBP and UI as well as the patterns of TrA, internal oblique (IO), and external oblique (EO) muscle recruitment as determined via ultrasound imaging in a cohort of community-dwelling elderly individuals.
Method
Individuals
Data were collected from male and female community-dwelling elderly individuals who
were aged 65 years or older and had no cognitive alterations as assessed using the
Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE)2525. Bertolucci PH, Brucki SM, Campacci SR, Juliano Y. O Mini-Exame do
Estado Mental em uma população geral. Impacto da escolaridade. Arq Neuropsiquiatr.
1994;52(1):1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X1994000100001.
PMid:8002795
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X1994...
. These
individuals had complained of LBP, and some had reported UI. The exclusion criteria
were acute low back pain; evidence of radiculopathies (e.g., reflex alteration,
dermatomes, and/or myotomes or positive Lasegue test); a positive clinical history of
neurological diseases, thoraco-abdominal surgeries (e.g., cesarean delivery and
hysterectomy) or spinal surgeries, and vertebral fractures; signs suggestive of
severe spinal cord injury due to severe trauma; a history of malignant tumor
(prostate cancer) or unexplained weight loss; severe spinal deformities (e.g.,
scoliosis, hyperkyphosis); spinal physical therapy in the last 6 months; and/or
lumbar and/or pelvic floor stabilization exercises.
The sample size was calculated while considering the abdominal muscle recruitment pattern as well as the dependent and independent study variables, the presence of LBP, and reported UI. It was calculated that 54 subjects would be required to obtain a correlation of 0.40 between the dependent and independent variables and a correlation of 0.20 among the independent variables with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.40 and a statistical power of 80%. For convenience, we sequentially recruited 60 community-dwelling elderly individuals. After selection and initiating data collection, 6 participants were excluded from the study. Therefore, the statistical analyses included 54 participants.
Study design
This cross-sectional observational study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil (ETIC 324/07) and was conducted according to Resolution 196/96 of the National Health Council, which addresses the Code of Ethics of Human Research. After having read and obtained clarification regarding the study terms, each individual signed an informed consent form prior to participation.
Materials and procedures
The cohort was assessed using a questionnaire that included questions about
sociodemographic and clinical-functional information. LBP was characterized using the
McGill Pain Questionnaire (Br-MPQ)44. Santos CC, Pereira LS, Resende MA, Magno F, Aguiar V. Aplicação da
versão brasileira do questionário de dor Mcgill em idosos com dor crônica. Acta
Fisiátrica. 2006;13(2):75-82.
,
2626. Varoli FK, Pedrazzi V. Adapted version of the McGill Pain
Questionnaire to Brazilian Portuguese. Braz Dent J. 2006;17(4):328-35.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0103-64402006000400012. PMid:17262148
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0103-64402006...
, an appropriate tool for assessing chronic
pain in elderly individuals. The intra- and inter-examiner reliability rates for the
Brazilian version of the Br-MPQ were found to be 0.86 and 0.89, respectively, with
rates of 0.71 and 0.68 for orthopedic and neurological diseases, respectively44. Santos CC, Pereira LS, Resende MA, Magno F, Aguiar V. Aplicação da
versão brasileira do questionário de dor Mcgill em idosos com dor crônica. Acta
Fisiátrica. 2006;13(2):75-82..
To assess the presence of UI and determine the frequencies and amounts of urinary
loss reported by the participants, 2 questions from the International Consultation on
Incontinence Questionnaire-Short Form (ICIQ-SF) quality of life survey that were
UI-specific and had been validated for Portuguese-speaking subjects were
implemented2727. Tamanini JT, Dambros M, D'Ancona CA, Palma PC, Rodrigues Netto N Jr.
Validação para o português do "International Consultation on Incontinence
Questionnaire - Short Form" (ICIQ-SF). Rev Saude Publica. 2004;38(3):438-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0034-89102004000300015. PMid:15243675
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0034-89102004...
.
A 2-dimensional ultrasound imaging device (Sonoline SL1; Siemens Healthcare,
Erlangen, Germany) was used to evaluate abdominal muscle recruitment. The images were
captured by a 10-cm, 7.5-MHz transducer coupled to the ultrasound imaging device. A
more detailed description of the protocol used for our assessments and measurements
was provided in the original study2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
. To
ensure intra- and inter-examiner reliability, a pilot study with 12 volunteers was
conducted. The test-retest reliability results obtained using the intraclass
correlation coefficient (ICC) were 0.76 (95% CI: 0.16-0.93) for the TrA, 0.49 (95%
CI: -0.76-0.85) for the IO, and 0.58 (95% CI: -0.46-0.88) for the EO. All ultrasound
images were captured and analyzed by the same previously trained researcher. Each
participant was asked to lie on a stretcher, and the researchers positioned the lower
limbs using a device with a rectangular metal frame according to a previous
model1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02...
,
2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
. The limbs were positioned to allow the
hips and knees to remain flexed at 50º and 90º, respectively (Figure 1). The participant was then asked to cross their arms
over their chest, and the ultrasound transducer was positioned at the height of the
umbilical scar, which was approximately 10 cm from the midline, lateral to the
abdominal wall, and between the iliac crest and rib cage. After proper positioning,
the participant was asked to remain at rest while images of the abdominal muscles at
rest (baseline) were captured. Next, the participant was instructed to generate a
contraction force before bending and then extending the knees; this corresponded to
7.5% of the body mass. This force produced an isometric contraction of the abdominal
muscles, which was measured using a force-gauge (Cabela's(r) Digital
Scale; Cabela's Incorporated, Sidney, NE, USA). The images were stored using video
software (Pinnacle Studio, version 9.4(r); Corel Corporation, Ottawa, ON,
Canada).
Diagram of the device used to position the participant during ultrasound image collection. Source: Ferreira et al.12 (used with permission).
Statistical analysis
A descriptive analysis of the quantitative variables was conducted by calculating the average, a central trend measure, and the standard deviation that assessed the sample data variability. A descriptive analysis of the qualitative variables was conducted by calculating the frequencies of each category.
To evaluate the associations between the continuous variables, 3 multiple linear regression analysis models were created. Each model used the proportion of the abdominal muscle (TrA, IO, and EO) recruitment as the dependent variable and the LBP and UI as independent variables.
All statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (version 17.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The level of significance was set at p<0.05.
Results
The sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of the study cohort are presented in Table 1. The cohort mostly comprised women (76%) and after calculating the body mass index (BMI) values of the participants, 46.3% of the subjects were determined to be eutrophic according to the interval (22-27 kg/m2) for elderly individuals as proposed by Lipschitz2828. Lipschitz DA. Screening for nutritional status in the elderly. Prim Care. 1994;21(1):55-67. PMid:8197257.; an additional 14.8% were malnourished, and 38.9% were overweight. Among the elderly patients suffering from LBP (n=34), 52.9% reported moderate pain (2.24±0.78) and 44.1% reported short/transitional/temporary pain according to the Br-MPQ survey (Table 1). Among the elderly patients reporting UI (n=22), 54.5% were losing urine once weekly or less frequently, and 81.8% ranked this loss as of low intensity.
None of the clinical variables strongly correlated with the TrA (UI, p=0.541; LBP, p=0.412) and EO muscle thicknesses (UI, p=0.091; LBP, p=0.078). Furthermore, LBP was not associated with the IO muscle thickness (p=0.931). Table 2 shows the results of the linear multiple regression models used to assess correlations between the TrA, IO, and EO muscle recruitment patterns and the variables of LBP and UI. These results illustrated that the regression models for the TrA, IO, and EO muscle recruitment levels explained 2.0% (R2=0.02; F=0.47; p=0.628), 10.6% (R2=0.106; F=3.03; p=0.057), and 10.1% (R2=0.101; F=2.70; p=0.077) of the variability, respectively. Only the model for the IO muscle was statistically significant.
Discussion
This study analyzed the associations between LBP and UI and abdominal muscle (TrA, IO,
and EO) recruitment patterns as measured by ultrasound imaging in a cohort of
community-dwelling elderly individuals. According to our findings, no abdominal muscle
recruitment could be used to explain the LBP and UI variables. However, UI was
significantly negatively associated (p=0.018; β=-0.0343) with IO
recruitment; in other words, elderly individuals who exhibited higher IO activation
reported lower urine losses. This finding partially confirmed those of previous studies
in which the IO and TrA were reportedly predominantly recruited during pelvic floor
muscle contraction, thus controlling continence through bladder stabilization and
increased intra-urethral pressure77. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW, Richardson CA, Cooper DH, Markwell SJ, Jull
GA. Co-activation of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles during voluntary
exercises. Neurourol Urodyn. 2001;20(1):31-42.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001)20:1<31::AID-NAU5>3.0.CO;2-P.
PMid:11135380
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001...
,
88. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW. Contraction of the pelvic floor muscles
during abdominal maneuvers. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(8):1081-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.24297. PMid:11494188
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.2429...
.
The co-activation of the abdominal muscles and pelvic floor is consistent with the model
in which the muscles surrounding the abdominal cavity were predicted to work together in
a coordinated manner to ensure column stability and maintain continence77. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW, Richardson CA, Cooper DH, Markwell SJ, Jull
GA. Co-activation of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles during voluntary
exercises. Neurourol Urodyn. 2001;20(1):31-42.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001)20:1<31::AID-NAU5>3.0.CO;2-P.
PMid:11135380
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001...
,
88. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW. Contraction of the pelvic floor muscles
during abdominal maneuvers. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(8):1081-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.24297. PMid:11494188
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.2429...
.
In a recent review study conducted by Ferreira and Santos2929. Ferreira M, Santos P. Evidência cientifica baseada nos programas de treino dos músculos do pavimento pélvico. Acta Med Port. 2011;24(2):309-18. PMid:22011604., the synergistic activation of the deep abdominal muscles (i.e., the lower fibers of the TrA and IO) was described during pelvic floor muscle contraction such that TrA contraction led to pelvic floor muscle co-contraction. These authors also suggested that abdominal muscle contraction should not be discouraged during pelvic floor muscle exercises because this would limit the pubococcygeus muscle response without producing a significant increase in intra-abdominal pressure.
One possible explanation of this finding relies on the characteristics of the studied
sample, which comprised elderly individuals with an average age of 72±5.2 years and
complaints of LBP and/or UI. Among the individuals complaining of UI (n=22), 72.7%
(n=16) also complained of LBP, a factor that may have influenced the observed results.
The previous studies77. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW, Richardson CA, Cooper DH, Markwell SJ, Jull
GA. Co-activation of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles during voluntary
exercises. Neurourol Urodyn. 2001;20(1):31-42.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001)20:1<31::AID-NAU5>3.0.CO;2-P.
PMid:11135380
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6777(2001...
,
88. Sapsford RR, Hodges PW. Contraction of the pelvic floor muscles
during abdominal maneuvers. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(8):1081-8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.24297. PMid:11494188
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.2429...
were conducted in a cohort of young adults with
no history of LBP and/or UI. Therefore, we suggest that the association observed between
UI and IO recruitment in this study be interpreted with caution and that further studies
intended to classify these individuals be performed.
The lack of association between EO recruitment and the variables of LBP and UI concurred
with previously reported results1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02...
and indicates
that ultrasound imaging is likely not a valid instrument with which to measure EO
recruitment, given the poor correlation between the EMG results and ultrasound images
observed for this muscle (R=0.28).
TrA muscle recruitment variability was not associated with either LBP or UI in the
present study sample. The trunk muscle recruitment pattern observed via ultrasound
imaging in young adults with and without LBP has been highlighted in the literature1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02...
13. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira ML, Ferreira MC,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. Effect of 2 lumbar spine postures on transversus
abdominis muscle thickness during a voluntary contraction in people with and without
low back pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2011;34(3):164-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02.009. PMid:21492751
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02...
-
1414. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira MC, Ferreira ML,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. The effect of lumbar posture on abdominal muscle
thickness during an isometric leg task in people with and without non-specific low
back pain. Man Ther. 2011;16(6):578-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05.010.
PMid:21708475
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05...
,
2020. Teyhen DS. Rehabilitative ultrasound imaging: the roadmap ahead. J
Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37(8):431-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.0107.
PMid:17877279
http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2007.010...
,
2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
. During muscle contraction, although EMG
detects the production of action potentials, changes in the muscle shape and geometry
are also noted. These changes enable the ultrasound imaging-based measurement and
recording of changes in the muscle thickness during contraction1111. Hodges P. Lumbopelvic stability: a functional model of the
biomechanics and motor control. In: Richardson C, Hodges P, Hides J, editors.
Therapeutic exercise for lumbopelvic stabilization. Churchill: Livingstone; 2004. p.
13-28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-07293-2.50005-4.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-072...
,
1212. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Nascimento DP, Pinto RZ, Franco MR, Hodges
PW. Discriminative and reliability analyses of ultrasound measurement of abdominal
muscles recruitment. Man Ther. 2011;16(5):463-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02.010. PMid:21398167
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.02...
,
2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
.
The elderly exhibit changes in movement and motor control1515. Berger MJ, Doherty TJ. Sarcopenia: prevalence, mechanisms, and
functional consequences. Interdiscip Top Gerontol. 2010;37:94-114.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000319997. PMid:20703058
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000319997...
16. Singh DK, Bailey M, Lee RY. Ageing modifies the fibre angle and
biomechanical function of the lumbar extensor muscles. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon).
2011;26(6):543-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2011.02.002.
PMid:21392870
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech....
-
1717. Reid KF, Doros G, Clark DJ, Patten C, Carabello RJ, Cloutier GJ, et
al. Muscle power failure in mobility-limited older adults: preserved single fiber
function despite lower whole muscle size, quality and rate of neuromuscular
activation. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(6):2289-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-2200-0. PMid:22005960
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-220...
. The former are due to sarcopenia, osteopenia,
reduced sensory and motor proprioception, postural and biomechanical compensatory
changes, and reduced nerve conduction velocity1515. Berger MJ, Doherty TJ. Sarcopenia: prevalence, mechanisms, and
functional consequences. Interdiscip Top Gerontol. 2010;37:94-114.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000319997. PMid:20703058
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000319997...
.
Losses of muscle mass, losses and atrophy of muscle fibers (particularly more marked
losses of type II fibers [i.e., fast glycolytic contraction fibers])1616. Singh DK, Bailey M, Lee RY. Ageing modifies the fibre angle and
biomechanical function of the lumbar extensor muscles. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon).
2011;26(6):543-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2011.02.002.
PMid:21392870
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech....
, and losses in the size and number of motor
units3030. Thomas DR. Sarcopenia. Clin Geriatr Med. 2010;26(2):331-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2010.02.012. PMid:20497850
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2010.02...
are responsible for the decreases in
muscular strength, power, and endurance1515. Berger MJ, Doherty TJ. Sarcopenia: prevalence, mechanisms, and
functional consequences. Interdiscip Top Gerontol. 2010;37:94-114.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000319997. PMid:20703058
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000319997...
,
3030. Thomas DR. Sarcopenia. Clin Geriatr Med. 2010;26(2):331-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2010.02.012. PMid:20497850
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2010.02...
observed during aging.
The protocol used in this study2121. Ferreira PH, Ferreira ML, Hodges PW. Changes in recruitment of the
abdominal muscles in people with low back pain: ultrasound measurement of muscle
activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(22):2560-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144410.89182.f9. PMid:15543074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000144...
was developed
and tested in young adults. It is possible that the low force generated by the isometric
muscle contraction used in this study (7.5% of the body mass) did not allow the
detection of changes in the TrA thickness, given that typical age-related alterations
can affect the structure and composition of muscles.
Singh et al.1616. Singh DK, Bailey M, Lee RY. Ageing modifies the fibre angle and
biomechanical function of the lumbar extensor muscles. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon).
2011;26(6):543-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2011.02.002.
PMid:21392870
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech....
compared changes in the lumbar
extensor muscles, fiber orientations, and muscle strength in young and elderly subjects
using ultrasound imaging and found that age-related changes interfered with both muscle
geometry and posture. Moreover, changes in the spinal curvature and consequently the
body position and joint movements might affect the muscle contraction and lever
strength1313. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira ML, Ferreira MC,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. Effect of 2 lumbar spine postures on transversus
abdominis muscle thickness during a voluntary contraction in people with and without
low back pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2011;34(3):164-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02.009. PMid:21492751
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2011.02...
,
1414. Pinto RZ, Ferreira PH, Franco MR, Ferreira MC, Ferreira ML,
Teixeira-Salmela LF, et al. The effect of lumbar posture on abdominal muscle
thickness during an isometric leg task in people with and without non-specific low
back pain. Man Ther. 2011;16(6):578-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05.010.
PMid:21708475
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2011.05...
. The loss of lumbar lordosis might affect the
muscle length, fiber orientation, and fascicle geometry, thus affecting muscle
strength1616. Singh DK, Bailey M, Lee RY. Ageing modifies the fibre angle and
biomechanical function of the lumbar extensor muscles. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon).
2011;26(6):543-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2011.02.002.
PMid:21392870
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech....
,
3030. Thomas DR. Sarcopenia. Clin Geriatr Med. 2010;26(2):331-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2010.02.012. PMid:20497850
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2010.02...
.
In summary, the lack of existing studies in the literature that incorporate ultrasound imaging to determine the abdominal muscle recruitment pattern in elderly individuals with complaints of LBP and UI made it difficult to compare the results observed in this study with those reported in the literature.
Regarding the association between LBP and UI, this study pioneered the evaluation of the TrA, IO, and EO muscle recruitment pattern via ultrasound imaging in elderly individuals. The multiple linear regression models used to verify this association revealed that only UI exhibited a significant association with IO recruitment. These results differed from those observed in young adults. Inherent age-related factors such as sarcopenia, changes in motor control, and the ultrasonography technique all possibly interfered with the findings of this study.
As age-related changes affect the entire body, further investigations involving ultrasound imaging will be required to identify the effects of aging on the recruitment patterns of these muscles.
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» http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2011.02.002 -
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
13 Feb 2015 -
Date of issue
Jan-Feb 2015
History
-
Received
17 Mar 2014 -
Reviewed
18 Aug 2014 -
Accepted
02 Oct 2014