Diagnosis of primary ciliary dyskinesia

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a genetic disorder of ciliary structure or function. It results in mucus accumulation and bacterial colonization of the respiratory tract which leads to chronic upper and lower airway infections, organ laterality defects, and fertility problems. We review the respiratory signs and symptoms of PCD, as well as the screening tests for and diagnostic investigation of the disease, together with details related to ciliary function, ciliary ultrastructure, and genetic studies. In addition, we describe the difficulties in diagnosing PCD by means of transmission electron microscopy, as well as describing patient follow-up procedures.

Kartagener Syndrome; Cilia; Mucociliary clearance; Ciliary motility disorders; Diagnosis

Authorship

Mary Anne Kowal Olm

Postdoctoral Student. Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, BrazilUniversity of São PauloBrazilSão Paulo, BrazilPostdoctoral Student. Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil

Elia Garcia Caldini

Associate Professor. Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, BrazilUniversity of São PauloBrazilSão Paulo, BrazilAssociate Professor. Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil

Thais Mauad

Tenured Professor. Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, BrazilUniversity of São PauloBrazilSão Paulo, BrazilTenured Professor. Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil

Correspondence to: Mary Anne Kowal Olm. Avenida Dr. Arnaldo, 455, sala 1150, CEP 01246-903, São Paulo, SP, Brasil. Tel. 55 11 5686-7301. E-mail: maryakolm@yahoo.com.br

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Figures

Figures (6)

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Figure 1.
Schematic illustration and electron micrograph of a normal airway cilium. In A, schematic illustration of an axial section of a normal cilium in a ciliated airway epithelial cell, in which the peripheral microtubular doublets (comprising the A and B tubules) are numbered from 1 to 9; the central microtubules are designated C1 and C2. The A tubule contains the outer and inner dynein arms, which interact dynamically with the B tubule of the adjacent microtubule and produce the sliding of the peripheral microtubular doublets relative to one another. The illustration also shows nexin links, which connect the microtubular doublets (thus preventing structural disarray during their sliding motion), and radial spokes, which extend from the periphery to the center of the ciliary axis. In B, electron micrograph (original magnification, ×50,000) showing the ultrastructural appearance of an axial section of a normal airway cilium. Source: Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil, 2010.

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Chart 1.
Ciliary ultrastructural defects, genetic mutations, and ciliary beat pattern in patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia.

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Chart 2.
Quantitative assessment of dynein arms.

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Figure 2.
Electron micrographs of ciliary ultrastructural defects. In A, absence of outer dynein arms (magnification, ×65,000); in B, microtubular disorganization (magnification: ×30,000); in C, absence of the central pair of microtubules (9+0 arrangement), which is usually associated with the 8+2 transposition defect (magnification: ×65,000); in D, 8+2 transposition defect (magnification: ×65,000). Source: Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil, 2010.

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Chart 3.
Screening for primary ciliary dyskinesia

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Figure 3.
Axial HRCT scan of the chest of a 30-year-old patient with primary ciliary dyskinesia (absence of outer and inner dynein arms) and advanced lung disease. Note significant involvement of the lung bases, with bronchial wall thickening, the signet ring sign, areas of consolidation, and attenuation differences. Source: Department of Clinical Pulmonology, Heart Institute, University of São Paulo School of Medicine - Hospital das Clínicas, São Paulo, Brazil, 2014.

Figure 1. Schematic illustration and electron micrograph of a normal airway cilium. In A, schematic illustration of an axial section of a normal cilium in a ciliated airway epithelial cell, in which the peripheral microtubular doublets (comprising the A and B tubules) are numbered from 1 to 9; the central microtubules are designated C1 and C2. The A tubule contains the outer and inner dynein arms, which interact dynamically with the B tubule of the adjacent microtubule and produce the sliding of the peripheral microtubular doublets relative to one another. The illustration also shows nexin links, which connect the microtubular doublets (thus preventing structural disarray during their sliding motion), and radial spokes, which extend from the periphery to the center of the ciliary axis. In B, electron micrograph (original magnification, ×50,000) showing the ultrastructural appearance of an axial section of a normal airway cilium. Source: Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil, 2010.

Chart 1. Ciliary ultrastructural defects, genetic mutations, and ciliary beat pattern in patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia.

Chart 2. Quantitative assessment of dynein arms.

Figure 2. Electron micrographs of ciliary ultrastructural defects. In A, absence of outer dynein arms (magnification, ×65,000); in B, microtubular disorganization (magnification: ×30,000); in C, absence of the central pair of microtubules (9+0 arrangement), which is usually associated with the 8+2 transposition defect (magnification: ×65,000); in D, 8+2 transposition defect (magnification: ×65,000). Source: Department of Pathology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil, 2010.

Chart 3. Screening for primary ciliary dyskinesia

Figure 3. Axial HRCT scan of the chest of a 30-year-old patient with primary ciliary dyskinesia (absence of outer and inner dynein arms) and advanced lung disease. Note significant involvement of the lung bases, with bronchial wall thickening, the signet ring sign, areas of consolidation, and attenuation differences. Source: Department of Clinical Pulmonology, Heart Institute, University of São Paulo School of Medicine - Hospital das Clínicas, São Paulo, Brazil, 2014.

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