Organic Cosmetics and the Use of Emotional Appeals

ABSTRACT

Objective:

to analyze the influence of emotional appeals on behavioral intention regarding organic products for personal care.

Theoretical framework:

this article uses the literature of emotional appeals, specifically the appeals of guilt, fear, authentic pride, and hubristic pride, to identify their effects on consumers’ behavioral intention in the context of organic personal care products. Emotional appeals of guilt, fear, authentic pride, and hubristic pride were examined.

Methodology:

four sequential experiments were conducted in real advertisement settings using a within-subjects and between-subjects experimental design. Data were analyzed using ANOVA.

Results:

the appeal of authentic pride was associated with a heightened value of joy and increased likelihood of consumer donation. The appeal of hubristic pride stimulated an effect of authentic pride. This way, the findings indicate that pride is a one-dimensional emotion in the national context of organic cosmetics consumers. Additionally, the appeal of one-dimensional pride aroused a more positive attitude and purchase intention regarding the advertised product compared to the emotions guilt, fear, and joy.

Conclusion:

these findings reposition the discussion on pride from a one-dimensional perspective because authentic pride stimulates joy. Further, positive appeals were more effective than negative appeals at increasing the consumers’ behavioral intention toward organic cosmetics. Contrary to the findings of previous surveys, pride was associated with more positive consumer attitudes toward the advertised product. Therefore, the use of pride appeal should be encouraged to promote consumer awareness.

Keywords:
emotional appeals; sustainable consumption; pride; organic products for personal care

RESUMO

Objetivo:

analisar a influência de apelos emocionais na intenção comportamental com relação a produtos orgânicos para cuidados pessoais.

Marco teórico:

utilizou-se a literatura dos apelos emocionais, em específico os apelos de culpa, medo, orgulho autêntico e orgulho hubrístico, para identificar seus efeitos na intenção comportamental no contexto dos produtos orgânicos para cuidados pessoais. Desta forma, utilizaram-se os apelos de culpa, medo, orgulho autêntico e orgulho hubrístico.

Metodologia:

quatro experimentos sequenciais em configurações de anúncios reais, com desenho experimental (within-subjects e between-subjects), foram realizados. Os dados foram analisados mediante ANOVA.

Resultados:

o apelo de orgulho autêntico estimulou maior valor de alegria, além de aumentar a probabilidade de os consumidores doarem, enquanto o apelo de orgulho hubrístico estimulou maior efeito de orgulho autêntico. Desta forma, foi evidenciado que o orgulho é uma emoção unidimensional no contexto nacional do consumidor de cosméticos orgânicos. Em seguida, descobriu-se que o apelo de orgulho unidimensional despertou uma maior atitude favorável e intenção de compra do produto anunciado em comparação às emoções culpa, medo e alegria.

Conclusão:

os achados reposicionam a discussão sobre o orgulho sob uma perspectiva unidimensional, pois o orgulho autêntico estimulou alegria. Ademais, os apelos positivos são mais eficazes para aumentar a intenção comportamental de cosméticos orgânicos. Em divergência com pesquisas anteriores, o orgulho provoca maiores atitudes favoráveis em relação ao produto anunciado. Portanto, para a conscientização do consumidor deve-se incentivar o uso de apelo de orgulho.

Palavras-chave:
apelos emocionais; consumo sustentável; orgulho; produtos orgânicos para cuidados pessoais

INTRODUCTION

Issues related to the high level of consumption have been highlighted, as they threaten environmental quality and sustainable development (Barbarossa & De Pelsmacker, 2016; Liobikienė & Bernatonienė, 2017; Tezer & Bodur, 2020). A movement that runs counter to this mass consumption trend is that of sustainable consumption (Liobikienė & Bernatonienė, 2017; Sun et al., 2021). The primary objective of sustainable consumption is to maintain the quality of the environment without reducing the production and consumption of goods and services, promoting a decrease in the environmental impact resulting from the mass production of products that do not respect the environment (Liobikienė & Bernatonienė, 2017). Therefore, one of the leading practices to achieve sustainable consumption is to increase buyers’ interest in purchasing ecologically beneficial products, also known as green products (Liobikienė & Bernatonienė, 2017; Sun et al., 2021). Green products are those manufactured with a focus on minimizing the exploitation of natural resources, with an emphasis on reducing the use of toxic materials or the emission of waste and pollutants (Amatulli et al., 2019; Hsu et al., 2017).

The international market for green products is increasing exponentially. This trend is related to growing social and political pressures regarding awareness of the impact of production on natural resources (Silva et al., 2020). In addition, when focusing on these products, many organizations use marketing strategies that draw consumer attention to sustainability issues. Thus, they gain a competitive advantage over organizations that do not sell green products or engage in social responsibility acts (Liobikienė & Bernatonienė, 2017; Romani et al., 2016).

The organic personal care sector is a sustainability-oriented market that has demonstrated positive results. In 2021, the global cosmetics market was valued at US $29.92 billion; it is estimated that this value will increase to US $32.09 billion in 2022 and to US $50.46 billion in 2027 (Statista Research Department, 2022). The data demonstrate the growing importance of the natural and organic cosmetics market. This growth is possible only due to consumers’ awareness of the type of products purchased (Statista Research Department, 2022). In Brazil, it is estimated that the sector moves BRL 4 billion per year, with an average annual growth of 20% (Bagnarelli, 2022). This increase is also due to the awareness of Brazilian consumers, who have begun to worry about issues related to sustainability (Cunha et al., 2011), and is also associated with the values and beliefs of individuals (Monteiro et al., 2012).

Therefore, in addition to the impact of these products on the market, there is also a need for further academic research if consumption of these products is to grow. Liobikienė and Bernatonienė (2017) and Zollo et al. (2021) found that organic products for personal care deserve more study to better understand the behavior of consumers who purchase these products. They recommended that researchers seek strategies to increase the dissemination and sale of such products and raise consumer awareness. Accordingly, this article focuses on the marketing of organic cosmetics or biocosmetics in Brazil, the fourth largest cosmetics consumer in the world (Babadobulos, 2018).This category is considered one of the main representatives of organic products for personal care (Grand View Research, 2019).

Furthermore, due to the concern that consumers have been exhibiting regarding environmental sustainability and green products, organizations are seeking to understand how they can increase consumers’ preference for additional ecological products and, therefore, increase their sales and gain a competitive advantage (Romani et al., 2016; Papadas et al., 2019). Although companies’ recent interest in and commitment to manufacturing green products has increased significantly, there is still limited understanding of which communication strategies are particularly effective in driving consumers toward greener options. One area of research that has been explored involves the emotional mechanisms that link green product advertisements with pro-environmental behaviors (Amatulli et al., 2019; Hong et al., 2021). Emotional mechanisms or appeals are important to induce specific responses or behaviors in receivers, thus increasing the influence of the message (Amatulli et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2016; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016).

Although the use of advertising appeals to draw attention to a particular happening is common in several fields (Aaker & Williams, 1998; Akbari, 2015; Dillard et al., 2017; Lepkowska-White et al., 2003; Song & Wen, 2019), and many appeals are aimed at issues related to sustainability (Amatulli et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2016; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016), few studies have analyzed the impacts of emotional appeals for green cosmetics (Amatulli et al., 2019; Corbett, 2002; Hong et al., 2021; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016). Given that appeals can make people reflect on a certain fact (Aaker & Williams, 1998; Amatulli et al., 2019; Song & Wen, 2019) - in other words, they are not simply a means of disseminating information -, they can stimulate emotions and change the behavior of those who see them. Emotional appeals are expected to increase the intention to consume green products (White et al., 2019), mainly organic personal care products. However, scant research has sought to understand the consumption process of these products, in addition to being considered beneficial for the consumer and the environment (Zollo et al., 2021).

Thus, given the possibility of appeals stimulating people’s emotions, research has demonstrated their effectiveness in bringing about behavioral change (Aaker & Williams, 1998; Kim et al., 2016; Septianto et al., 2020). For this article, ads with emotional appeals regarding sustainability are used, with the aim of analyzing the influence of emotional appeals on behavioral intention regarding organic personal care products.

Due to the growth in sales of green cosmetic products, including organic ones, a better understanding of this market is needed. Furthermore, consumers are increasing receiving information about products, including green products (Kumar et al., 2021). Therefore, there is a need to recognize the best ways to communicate with consumers so that they have a behavioral intention favorable to organic products for personal care, highlighting the use of emotional appeals as a possible way to increase such behavioral intention (Shimul et al., 2022). Furthermore, identifying the impact of sustainable claims through the ideal appeal type can enrich the field. Finally, the importance of analyzing the difference between the appeals is highlighted, as well as identifying which appeal is more effective, since there is a need for research that examines the difference between the effect of pride and guilt (Shimul et al., 2022). This study also advances knowledge of the effectiveness of advertising beyond the single focus of negative appeal, a common focus in most studies on sustainable consumption.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Emotions and consumer behavior

Emotions are generated from interpretations of the context experienced by the individual (Fridja, 1987; Lazarus, 1991; Roseman, 1991) and play a role in motivating behavior, influencing the individual to make new decisions (Ahtola, 1985; Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). The ubiquity of emotions in the behavioral process underscores their importance for disciplines whose scope is the analysis of consumer behavior and behavioral change (Romani et al., 2016; Xie et al., 2019).

Emotions are classified into two categories according to the effects they cause on individuals: emotions of positive valence (e.g., joy, love, and pride) that are, in general, beneficial to subjective well-being, and emotions of negative valence (e.g., fear, guilt, and shame) that lead to deleterious psychological consequences (Lazarus, 1991). Furthermore, emotions can be classified into ego-focused emotions and other-focused emotions. Ego-focused emotions (e.g., pride, happiness, frustration, anger) tend to be associated with an individual’s inner state or attributes to the exclusion of others and are consistent with the need for individual awareness, experience, and expression (Aaker & Williams, 1998). Conversely, emotions focused on others (e.g., empathy, guilt, shame) tend to be related to other people in a social context or to one’s close associates (i.e., family, friends, coworkers, political or religious groups, and social or ideological class) and are consistent with the need for unity, harmony, and alignment of their actions with others (Aaker & Williams, 1998).

To understand the impacts of emotions, emotional appeals selected in relation to their valence and focus are used. For this article, the focus is on guilt (negative and other-focused), fear (negative and ego-focused), authentic pride (positive and ego-focused), and hubristic pride (positive and other-focused). Guilt and fear are well-studied emotions, and their impacts on behavioral change have been presented in other articles (e.g., Antonetti & Baines, 2015; Brennan & Binney, 2010). Thus, fear and guilt are compared with pride appeals that are less often studied (Hong et al., 2021), understanding that pride can be divided into two types - hubristic pride and authentic pride. These emotions are described below.

Guilt

Guilt is characterized as an emotion related to the failure of self-regulatory processes, resulting from non-compliance with values and principles internalized by the individual (Baumeister et al., 1994; Lazarus, 1991). Although there is no consensus in the literature about whether guilt has universal characteristics, there is some agreement regarding the influence of social factors in the guilt formation process. Unlike emotions considered basic, such as anger and fear, guilt derives from the individual’s cognitive faculties related to moral aspects (Rodríguez-Torrez et al., 2005; Tracy & Robins, 2007a). Thus, guilt originates from inconsistencies between the individual’s concepts of right and wrong; these notions are socially constructed. Furthermore, because it requires the apprehension of social components for its origin, guilt is defined as an interpersonal emotion as compared to emotions of a solely intrapersonal source (Baumeister et al., 1994). Thus, guilt can be classified as an other-focused emotion.

Fear

Fear is a basic emotion typically produced by the presence or expectation of a specific danger or threat (LaTour & Rotfeld, 1997). Fear is one of the primary human emotions, characterized as an emotional state of anticipation of pain or suffering and accompanied by an activity that involves the nervous system. Therefore, it is known as the emotion of flight and, in many cases, the main driver of decisions, being directed more by action than by reason (Lazarus, 1991; Plutchik, 1980; Williams, 2012a, 2012b). Fear can be considered the main emotion because, without it, one would be unable to avoid dangers (Solomon, 2007). Although fear is an emotion in which decision-making is unconscious, it is rational. Fear is an unconscious rational emotion that sometimes leads to flight or deviation, because, even when unconscious, the brain reasons to have some action on a threat (Solomon, 2007).

Negative emotions such as fear can be seen as bad emotions for the individual who feels them; however, they are essential for the perpetuation of the species (Lewis et al., 2010; Solomon, 2007). Therefore, fear is necessary for survival. However, for humans, fear extends beyond survival issues and becomes a more complex emotion (Santos, 2003). Fear can be distributed differently in society; for example, it can come from a lack of power. However, if this lack of power is intrinsic, it will generate an escape action; if the fear comes from something extrinsic, there will be a fighting action (Lewis et al., 2010). Moreover, fear is an emotion related to the self, indicating that situations that place the self in danger can trigger fear (Lazarus, 1991). In other words, fear is an emotion felt individually and is independent of the perception of others, which is why this emotion is classified as ego-focused.

Pride

Pride is a positive, self-conscious emotion stemming from achievements that can be attributed to a person’s skills or efforts (Dovidio & Penner, 2004; Panagopoulos, 2010). In this way, pride is an emotion related to the achievement of goals resulting from an action performed by the individual or by someone with whom they are highly identified (McFerran et al., 2014; Soscia, 2007). The individual expresses such emotion when reaching goals and overcoming obstacles characterized by effort and personal dedication (Tracy & Robins, 2007a, 2007b). In a consumption context, feeling proud can increase the attractiveness of certain products that can be used in public or can positively differentiate the consumer (Griskevicius et al., 2010; Yang & Zhang, 2018). Pride signals status more strongly than any other expression of emotion examined (Cheng et al., 2010). In fact, pride can motivate people to seek attention from others.

Although from a universal perspective and through the conceptualization described above, pride can be characterized as a one-dimensional emotion of the self concerning others (Tracy & Robins, 2004), depending on its attribution, it can be divided into two dimensions that have very different characteristics: hubristic pride and authentic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2007b; Tracy et al., 2009). Tracy and Robins (2007b) provided empirical evidence about the separation of meanings of these two types of pride and the differential associations they have with aspects of personality. Furthermore, research indicates that the operationalizations of the two dimensions of pride differ (McFerran et al., 2014; Panchal & Gill, 2020).

Hubristic pride is defined as a narcissistic emotion rooted in the individual’s distorted views and maladaptive behaviors, evidencing a negative aspect resulting from the comparison with others (Tracy & Robins, 2007b). In general, when this dimension of pride is expressed, the individual demonstrates dominance, arrogance, and self-importance (Panchal & Gill, 2020). Conversely, authentic pride is experienced in a more reserved and genuine way. Moreover, since this emotion fundamentally concerns the individuals themselves, it does not bring with it the idea of arrogance that emerges from hubristic pride. For this reason, authentic pride is associated with a genuine sense of prestige and accomplishment (Henrich & Gil-White, 2001), whereas hubristic pride is often related to arrogance, narcissism, and self-aggrandizement (Panchal & Gill, 2020; Tracy & Robins, 2007b).

Thus, authentic pride is expressed as an emotion with a positive impact resulting from achieving a personal goal; in contrast, hubristic pride is understood as an emotion with a negative effect (Septianto et al., 2020). In short, authentic pride comes from accomplishments or the achievement of goals and is focused on the efforts applied toward reaching the goal, whereas hubristic pride reflects general beliefs about abilities and strengths as expressed in statements such as ‘I do everything well’ or ‘I’m naturally talented’ (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007a; Septianto et al., 2020). In other words, in this perspective, authentic pride arises from a self-evaluation of ‘doing,’ while hubristic pride arises from a self-evaluation of ‘being’ (Lewis, 2008).

Emotional appeal

Appeals can induce receivers to present specific emotional responses, thus increasing the influence of the message communicated. Research reveals that appeals that activate emotional aspects have a more significant impact than cognitive appeals; this is because when someone experiences an emotion, they must present a response, while cognition does not necessarily motivate a change in behavior (Amatulli et al., 2019; White et al., 2011). In addition, research points out that negative valence appeals are more persuasive because they create a feeling of discomfort in the receiver, leading them to engage in the desired actions to reduce this feeling (Arthur & Quester, 2004; Brennan & Binney, 2010).

Furthermore, it is important to understand the influence of appeals on emotions classified as ego-focused and other-focused. For example, Oh et al. (2011) demonstrated that consumers evaluate green products more favorably when their self-construction is temporarily activated and when this is compatible with the associated benefits provided in the advertisement. In this way, the consumer sees use for the self (Kim et al., 2016). Furthermore, people may believe that buying an eco-friendly product does not help the environment, especially if they perceive that other consumers do not do the same and that public authorities are lax in implementing effective policies that preserve the environment (Amatulli et al., 2019). In this way, it is expected that receivers will behave differently in response to advertisements depending on who will reap the benefits and harm (Kim et al., 2016).

Furthermore, appeals for awareness and commercialization of pro-environmental or sustainable movements have occurred since the 1980s (Corbett, 2002; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016). However, VanDyke and Tedesco (2016) and Pittman et al. (2021) suggest the need for additional research that analyzes the perception of individuals and the impacts of sustainable appeals as well as green advertisements or environmental appeals. The authors state that there is still an urgency to demonstrate how these appeals affect a consumer’s decision and how they can be better explored.

Appeal of guilt

The guilt appeal is a communication that seeks to submit the individual to the cognitive processes of self-assessment. There are two ways to experience guilt: anticipated guilt, in which the individual simulates possible contexts and behaviors, and reactive guilt, in which the emotion arises after acting (Antonetti & Baines, 2015). The individual can experience guilt in its anticipated form when watching, for example, an advertisement that reveals the harm of a possible acquisition of counterfeit products without ever having acquired them. If, on the contrary, the individual who watches the same advertisement has purchased a counterfeit product, they may experience reactive guilt, which is usually more forceful than its anticipated form (Antonetti & Baines, 2015). However, as it is not desirable for the consumer to purchase counterfeit products to experience reactive guilt, advertisements should simulate the individual’s feeling of guilt in post-purchase situations (Lindsey, 2005), addressing the negative consequences of having acquired them. Although the experience of reactive guilt is an important factor in changing an individual’s conduct, it is necessary to have a combination of awareness of the actions taken and the use of behavior-oriented coping strategies to change behavioral intentions.

Appeal of fear

The main function of fear is to motivate someone to escape from situations that threaten one’s self-preservation; thus, it is an emotion involved with involuntary psychological responses (Hille et al., 2015). The fear appeal is a persuasive communication that heightens fear by promoting precarious motivation and self-protective action. To change behavior, the fear appeal must contain (a) a threat (e.g., smoking causes cancer) and (b) a recommended action (i.e., stop smoking). Furthermore, fear is an anticipatory emotion of immediate response to a threat associated with an uncertain future outcome and occurs before an action (Antonetti et al., 2015). The use of advertisements with fear appeals dates back to the 1950s (Witte & Allen, 2000) and has long been observed as an essential tool for marketing (Ray & Wilkie, 1970). However, researchers lack consensus about the best way to use it.

The main difference between guilt and fear appeals concerns who will suffer the effect. In fear appeals, the harm will be perceived or experienced by the message receiver, while in guilt appeals, the message receiver will not suffer any direct impact; instead, this impact will fall on others. In this sense, the literature emphasizes that the closer the message receiver’s relationship with the other who will be affected, the greater the guilt.

Appeal of pride

Studies analyzing the causes and consequences of pride in marketing are scarce (Decrop & Derbaix, 2010; Hong et al., 2021), and research that used pride appeals is limited as well (Hong et al., 2021; Song & Wen, 2019; VanLeeuwen et al., 2013). Pride appeals were used to compare whether there are differences between collectivist and individualist societies. In this sense, it was found that this appeal has a more significant effect in collectivist cultures than in individualist ones (Aaker & Williams, 1998). Furthermore, Akbari (2015) revealed that the pride appeal had the slightest effect among the emotional appeals regarding high-involvement products. Still, this effect was even more significant than the effect of the rational appeal.

However, the need for studies that use pride in its two forms, hubristic and authentic, is emphasized. Although hubristic pride is seen as maladaptive behavior by the individual, evidencing a negative aspect arising from the comparison with others, this can be used to identify whether consumers of green products do so as a result of social pressure or a search for status. Recent findings reinforce the notion that only hubristic pride is linked to a tendency to be motivated by extrinsic goals (a focus on the other), in other words, those that lead to public recognition or even adoration (Cheng et al., 2010; Septianto et al., 2020). In contrast, authentic pride is related to a tendency toward an intrinsic goal motivation, focusing on actions and efforts to achieve individual goals, also known as self-focus (Hong et al., 2021; Tracy & Robins, 2004; 2007b).

Furthermore, it is believed that when people feel pride, they will exercise prosocial behaviors to improve the positive state or beneficial self-image perceived by others (Dovidio & Penner, 2004; Henrich & Gil-White, 2001). In this way, it is expected that both types of pride can influence pro-environmental behaviors. The individual who supports green consumption can present authentic pride, thus evidencing an emotion related to issues of the self (ego-focused). Conversely, individuals who exhibit prosocial behavior to gain status and compare themselves with others exhibit a trait of hubristic pride. As this is an emotion related to the perception of others, it can be considered an other-focused emotion. In addition, research indicates that, in some cases, green consumption is aimed at others in the quest to gain status (Griskevicius et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2021).

Considering the aforementioned emotional appeals and their relationship with pro-environmental behavior, for this investigation, consumers’ behavioral intention was measured through their favorable attitude toward organic products for personal care and the intention to purchase organic products for personal care. Based on what has been said about emotional appeals, this study has the following hypotheses:

H1: There is a difference between the effects of emotional appeals on behavioral intention regarding organic products for personal care.

H1a: There is a difference between the effects of emotional appeals on the favorable attitude toward organic products for personal care.

H1b: There is a difference between the effects of emotional appeals on the intention to purchase organic products for personal care.

OVERVIEW OF THE EXPERIMENTS

This investigation was conducted through four experiments in real advertisement settings. Experiment 1 tested the prediction that manipulated appeals are perceived by consumers in the desired way and are experienced differently from other manipulated emotions. Since it was not possible to stimulate hubristic pride from it, Experiment 2 was designed to examine whether authentic and hubristic pride appeals created the desired message in the Brazilian context. In this study, it was once again found that authentic pride appeals stimulate joy, whereas hubristic pride appeals stimulate authentic pride. Then, Experiment 3 found that the authentic pride appeal stimulates joy, while the hubristic pride appeal stimulates authentic pride and that the latter leads to a greater probability of a consumer donating to an environmental cause. Finally, Experiment 4 explored the effect of different emotions on the favorable attitude toward the advertised product and purchase intention, thus analyzing Hypothesis 1. Figure 1 presents the conceptual model.

Figure 1
Conceptual model.

EXPERIMENT 1

Experiment 1 aimed to determine whether the appeal introduced to respondents brings the desired message and whether this message is perceived differently from other emotions. To provide an interpretation of the individual’s perception of appeal, figures were presented referring to the appeal of fear, guilt, authentic pride, hubristic pride, and informational pride (see Figures A1 to A5 in the data and materials made publicly available) in such a way that the participants could classify the appeal they experienced. Experiment 1 allows identification of the relationship between emotional appeals and their impact on consumers in the Brazilian context.

Method

In the first experiment, 44 responses were collected in a non-probabilistic way and by accessibility (Vergara, 1998) in February 2021 through an online questionnaire on Google Forms. To achieve the proposed objective, a within-subject experiment with five scenarios was designed: (a) a negative valence appeal with impact on the message receiver (fear; Figure A1); (b) a negative valence appeal with impact on others (guilt; Figure A2); (c) a positive valence appeal with impact on the other (hubristic pride; Figure A3); (d) an appeal of positive valence with impact for the receiver of the message (authentic pride; Figure A4); and a neutral valence appeal (see Figure A5). This experiment can be classified as a laboratory experiment using scenarios (Hernandez et al., 2014).

Upon seeing the figure, the respondents were asked to indicate on a seven-point Likert scale (one = ‘totally disagree’ and seven = ‘totally agree’) their answer to the following sentence: “Do you believe that the ad communicates: guilt, superiority (i.e., hubristic pride), fear, pride (i.e., authentic pride), shame, joy, or information.” In the within-subject modality, all subjects were exposed to the five advertisements to compare their response to each ad. A within-subject analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for data analysis, a technique that is appropriate to detect differences in means when the same individuals participate in all conditions (scenarios) of the experiment.

Results

Guilt

The results indicate that the guilt appeal managed to induce guilt, since guilt had the highest value among the means of emotions, and this value was significantly different: guilt (M_guilt = 5.63; SD = 1.52); hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 2.81; SD = 2.04); fear (M_fear = 4.59; SD = 2.01); authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} = 2.43; SD = 1.95); shame (M_shame = 4.88; SD = 2.14); and joy (M_joy = 1.54; SD = 1.40); (F[1, 43] = 689,969, p = .000). It is noted that guilt had a higher value than all emotions, and a post hoc test was performed to indicate that there was a significant difference between the emotions: guilt vs. hubristic pride (p = .000); guilt vs. fear (p = .002); guilt vs. authentic pride (p = .002); guilt vs. shame (p = .027); and guilt vs. joy (p = .002).

Fear

The results indicate that the fear appeal was able to induce fear, since the average of the fear appeal presented the highest value among the means of emotions, and this value was significantly different: guilt (M_guilt = 3.06; SD = 1.96); hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 2.15; SD = 1.56); fear (M_fear = 4.13; SD = 2.04); authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} 2.43; SD = 2.84); shame (M_shame = 2.95; SD = 2.32); and joy (M_joy = 2.22; SD = 2.10); (F[1, 43] = 308,806, p = .000). It is noted that fear had a higher value than all other emotions, and a post hoc test was performed to indicate that there was a significant difference between the emotions: fear vs. guilt (p = .002); fear vs. hubristic pride (p = .000); fear vs. authentic pride (p = .000); fear vs. authentic pride (p = .001); and fear vs. joy (p = .000).

Authentic pride

The results indicate that the authentic pride appeal presented a greater inducement of joy: guilt (M_guilt = 1.63; SD = 1.33); hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 3.34; SD = 2.04); fear (M_fear = 1.56; SD = 1.28); authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} = 4.61; SD = 2.09); shame (M_shame = 1.52; SD = 1.33); and joy (M_joy = 6.15; SD = 1.14); (F[1, 43] = 619,103, p = .000). Furthermore, a post hoc test was performed to indicate that there was a significant difference between the emotions: authentic pride vs. guilt (p = .000); authentic pride vs. hubristic pride (p = .032); authentic pride vs. fear (p = .000); authentic pride vs. shame (p = .001); and authentic pride vs. joy (p = .000).

Hubristic pride

The results indicate that the hubristic pride appeal presented a greater inducement of authentic pride: guilt (M_guilt = 1.81; SD = 1.35); hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 3.84; SD = 2.04); fear (M_fear = 1.61; SD = 1.33); authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} = 5.15; SD = 2.11); shame (M_shame = 1.50; SD = 1.11); and joy (M_joy = 4.86; SD = 1.73); (F[1, 43] = 644,318, p = .000). Therefore, a post hoc test was performed to indicate that there was a significant difference between the emotions: hubristic pride vs. guilt (p = .000); hubristic pride vs. fear (p = .000); hubristic pride vs. authentic pride (p = .010); hubristic pride vs. shame (p = .001); and hubristic pride vs. joy (p = .181).

Information

An appeal whose purpose is only to inform and not to generate emotion was also tested. The results demonstrate that the appeal had a greater effect on information generation: guilt (M_guilt = 1.84; SD = 1.72); hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 3.72; SD = 2.49); fear (M_fear = 1.50; SD = 1.13); authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} = = 4.52; SD = 2.42); shame (M_shame = 1.52; SD = 1.17); joy (M_joy = 4.43; SD = 2.21); and information (M_information = 5.90; SD = 1.59); (F[1, 43] = 362,540, p = .000). It should be noted that information had a higher value than all emotions. A post hoc test was performed to indicate that there was a significant difference between the emotions: information vs. guilt (p = .000); information vs. hubristic pride (p = .000); information vs. fear (p = .000); information vs. authentic pride (p = .020); information vs. shame (p = .001); and information vs. joy (p = .010).

Discussion

Next, we analyzed which appeals had the greatest effect on the information. It was determined that there was no difference between the appeals for the level of information presented; this demonstrates that appeals with negative, positive, or no valence provided the same level of information: information in the guilt appeal (M_information = 5.97; SD = 1.60); information in the fear appeal (M_information= 6.06; SD = 1.56); information in the authentic pride appeal (M_information = 5.25; SD = 2.12); information in the hubristic pride appeal (M_information = 5.36; SD = 2.13); and information in the information appeal (M_information = 5.90; SD = 1.569); (F[1, 43] = 668,228, p = .000). Although the ANOVA provided a significant result, only one relationship revealed a significant result, evidencing the relationship between fear and authentic pride (p = .043), in which the appeal of fear created more information than that of authentic pride. Findings such as this, which reinforce that negative valence has greater effects than positive valence, are recurrent in the literature (Amatulli et al., 2019; Levin et al., 1998; Olsen et al., 2014). Thus, the information appeal was not used for sequential studies, as this has the same effect as the others. In Figure 2, we present the average results graphically in each appeal and the value assigned to each emotion.

Figure 2
Comparison between means of emotions in relation to appeals.

Based on the findings, it can be seen that the manipulation check was met in parts. The appeals of guilt and fear generated the desired emotion. In the guilt appeal, the guilt emotion (M = 5.63) had a higher mean than the other emotions, since it was significantly higher than the mean of shame (p = .027). In the fear appeal, the fear emotion (M = 4.13) had a higher average than the other emotions, since it was significantly higher than the guilt average (p = .002). However, the appeal of authentic pride brought greater joy (M = 6.15) than authentic pride (M = 4.61; p = .000). Similarly, the appeal of hubristic pride brought a higher value for authentic pride (M = 5.15), along with joy (M = 4.86), and they were not statistically different (p = 1). The justification for this result lies in the fact that pride is mainly seen as hubristic, classified as an emotion of arrogance in Brazil. Being called proud is an offensive term for many in Brazil; therefore, this may have caused hubristic pride to be classified as authentic pride and authentic pride as joy, since joy is a basic positive emotion and can be seen as a broad affective dimension in different proportions in other positive emotions, such as gratitude and pride (King & Defoy, 2020). However, to validate this finding, two other studies were conducted. Experiment 2 was employed to identify the relationship between pride and joy appeals in the Brazilian context, and Experiment 3 was conducted to identify the effect of pride on behavioral intention measured through donations to companies to support the development of organic cosmetics.

EXPERIMENT 2

The first experiment’s results supported the non-existence of two distinct variants of pride, since these appeals can be perceived differently in the context of the Brazilian consumer. The premise was that authentic pride could be induced in advertisements by focusing on positive self-representations resulting from attributions to internal causes, such as individual actions or efforts. However, the results revealed that the respondents understood authentic pride as joy in the advertisements. Conversely, hubristic pride is understood as a motivation to exhibit uniqueness, leading individuals to choose options that allow them to differentiate themselves from others; the results revealed that respondents understood ads with this appeal as authentic pride and joy.

The reason for this result suggests a different experience of the respondents in relation to the dimensions of pride. For example, Huang et al. (2014) indicated that hubristic pride could increase motivation to exhibit uniqueness, leading individuals to choose options that allow them to differentiate themselves from others. From this perspective, hubristic pride could easily be confused with the definition of one-dimensional pride. In contrast, individuals who experience authentic pride are described as having high levels of self-control and genuine concern about the impacts of their actions and behavior (Panchal & Gill, 2020; Tracy & Robins, 2007b). Therefore, it is expected that people who experience hubristic pride feel better about themselves and are more interested in showing others who they are; consequently, it is often related to arrogance, narcissism, and self-aggrandizement (Panchal & Gill, 2020; Tracy & Robins, 2007b). In contrast, people who experience authentic pride focus on themselves and on their actions without bothering to convey this to others (Ahn et al., 2021; Hong et al., 2021), demonstrating a genuine sense of prestige and accomplishment (Henrich & Gil-White, 2001), very similar to joy. Thus, the intention was to expand the discussion about how consumers identify pride appeals.

Method

To corroborate the results of the previous experiment, Study 1 by Hong et al. (2021) was replicated. In this way, the same appeals (Figure A6 and A7 in the data and materials made publicly available) were used to identify whether they can induce authentic and hubristic pride, as in the study by Hong et al. (2021). Responses from 82 participants (68.3% female, M_age = 29.82, SD = 11.12) were collected in June 2022 through an online questionnaire on Google Forms. Participants were randomly¹ exposed to a within-subject experiment with two scenarios outlined: (a) a hubristic pride appeal and (b) an authentic pride appeal. For this study, hubristic pride was measured: hubristic pride scale (Septianto et al., 2020); authentic pride: authentic pride scale (Septianto et al., 2020); and joy: joy scale (Nyer, 1997) (Table 1 in the data and materials made publicly available). Then, after being exposed to a specific scenario, the participants were asked to respond on a seven-point Likert scale (one = ‘totally disagree’ and seven = ‘totally agree’) to the requested scales to compare the averages of the answers. For data analysis, within-subject and between-subject ANOVA were used.

Results

Authentic pride scenario

With a total of 44 responses, the within-subject ANOVA tested the mean difference between authentic pride, hubristic pride, and joy in the authentic pride scenario. The results of this study indicated that the appeal of authentic pride, once again, generated greater joy than both forms of pride: authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} = 4.07; SD = 1.80); hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 2.33; SD = 1.39); and joy (M_joy = 4.45; SD = 1.67); (F[2, 42] = 50.211, p = .000). For the paired test, the following results were found: authentic pride vs. hubristic pride (p = .000); authentic pride vs. joy (p = .020); and hubristic pride vs. joy (p = .000).

Hubristic pride scenario

With a total of 38 respondents, the within-subject ANOVA tested the difference in means between authentic pride, hubristic pride, and joy in the hubristic pride scenario. The results indicated that the appeal of hubristic pride generated greater authentic pride, confirming the predictions: authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} 4.19; SD = 1.54); hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 2.29; SD = 1.18); and joy (M_joy = 3.78; SD = 1.47); (F[2, 36] = 46,222, p = .000). For the paired test, the following results were found: authentic pride vs. hubristic pride (p = .000); authentic pride vs. joy (p = .045); and hubristic pride vs. joy (p = .000).

Between-subject analysis

The between-subject ANOVA compared the means of the variables of authentic pride, hubristic pride, and joy between scenarios (i.e., Scenario 1 = authentic pride appeal; Scenario 2 = hubristic pride appeal). The results indicated that there was no difference in the mean of the variables with the scenarios: authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride-Scen1} = 4.07; SD = 1.80 and M_{authentic-pride-Scen2} = 4.19; SD = 1.54; F[1, 80] = 0.099, p = .754); joy (M_joy-Scen1 = 4.45; SD = 1.67 and M_joy-Scen2 = 3.78; SD = 1.47; F[1, 80] = 3,643, p = .060); and hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride-Scen1} = 2.33; SD = 1.39 and M_{hubristic-pride-Scen2} = 2.29; SD = 1.18; F[1, 80] = 0.017, p = .897). In this way, it is evident that the emotions had the same effects in both scenarios. Figure 3 below summarizes the within-subject and between-subject analyses of the appeals in Experiment 2.

Figure 3
Mean comparison of appeals between scenarios.

Discussion

This study was used to deepen the results of Experiment 1, in which it was not possible to stimulate hubristic pride. Thus, it replicated the study by Hong et al. (2021) in which the authors managed to stimulate hubristic pride. However, the results of Experiment 2 point out again that authentic pride is seen as joy in the Brazilian context, and hubristic pride is recognized as authentic pride. Thus, it was reinforced that the pride construct is one-dimensional and is seen with a rude connotation for Brazilians.

EXPERIMENT 3

Experiment 3 analyzed whether stimulating pride makes people more likely to donate to companies to develop their organic cosmetics. Furthermore, this study sought to further deepen the issue of pride in the Brazilian context. Amatulli et al. (2019) demonstrated that negative emotional appeals prompt individuals to donate to pro-environmental associations. In contrast, Song and Wen (2019) found that the appeal of pride increases the intention to donate blood. Furthermore, Paramita et al. (2020) found that pride influences the intention to donate but only when others recognize this action. Therefore, it is understood that some social activities are undertaken so that individuals can demonstrate to society that they are contributing. Thus, pride is believed to be a predictor of the intention to donate.

Method

The scenario proposed in Study 2a by Septianto et al. (2020) was replicated for this research. To stimulate hubristic pride, participants were instructed to remember and write about a situation in which they felt proud of ‘who they are,’ and to stimulate authentic pride, participants were instructed to remember and write about a situation in which they felt proud of ‘what they did.’ After the respondents wrote their stories, hubristic pride and authentic pride were measured using the scale employed by Septianto et al. (2020) and happiness through the scale of Nyer (1997) (Table 2 in the data and materials made publicly available). Then, the following text was presented to the respondents: “Evergreen is launching the Evergreen Organic Shampoo, which complies with all regulations for organic cosmetics. However, at the moment, there are only 1,000 units produced of this shampoo. After reading your story, Evergreen Cosmetics selected you to be one of the first to use this launch because they believe you deserve it. However, as it is an organic product, there is a higher cost in manufacturing this product. Therefore, Evergreen asks if you would be willing to donate so they can produce more of this product.” At the end, the participants were asked: “From one to seven, how likely are you to donate?” where one means not at all and seven means significantly likely.

Fifty-two responses (75% female, M_age = 30, SD = 10) were collected in a non-probabilistic way and by accessibility (Vergara, 1998) in June 2022 through an online questionnaire on Google Forms. Participants were randomly² exposed to one of two scenarios, with 26 respondents assigned to each scenario. First, a within-subject ANOVA was performed to recognize whether the respondent was stimulated to feel the desired emotion based on the scenario, and a between-subject ANOVA was conducted to compare the appeals between the scenarios. Finally, a between-subject ANOVA was used again to determine whether the scenario influenced the probability of a donation. Once a between-subject ANOVA was performed, randomization was conducted, and a strange variable was inserted to indicate that the sample was homogeneous (Hernandez et al., 2014). The inserted variable was pro-environmental behavior, measured using the Chang (2011).

Results

Authentic pride scenario

A within-subject ANOVA tested the mean difference between authentic pride, hubristic pride, and joy in the authentic pride scenario. A higher value was obtained for authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} = 6.26; SD = 0.89), followed by joy (M_joy = 6.19; SD = 1.02), and then hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 2.44; SD = 1.18), and the differences between them were significant (F[1, 25] = 151,028, p = .000); authentic pride vs. hubristic pride (p = .000); authentic pride vs. joy (p = .542); and hubristic pride vs. joy (p = .000). It is noted in this result that authentic pride and joy had values considered equal. This result differed from those of Experiments 1 and 2, in which joy was greater than authentic pride in the scenario of authentic pride. In this way, again, the notion that Brazilians perceive authentic pride as joy is reinforced.

Hubristic pride scenario

A within-subject ANOVA tested the mean difference between authentic pride, hubristic pride, and joy in the hubristic pride scenario. A higher value was obtained for authentic pride (M_{authentic-pride} = 6.50; SD = 0.68), followed by joy (M_joy = 6.28; SD = 0.80), and then hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride} = 2.09; SD = 0.88), and the differences between them were significant (F[1, 25] = 609,412, p = .000); orgulho autêntico x orgulho hubrístico (p = .000); authentic pride vs. hubristic pride (p = .000); authentic pride vs. joy (p = .029); and hubristic pride vs. joy (p = .000). This result, again, demonstrates that hubristic pride is seen as authentic pride in the Brazilian context. Furthermore, it is noted that in this study, authentic pride was the highest in both scenarios, indicating that pride is seen as one-dimensional in the Brazilian context.

Between-subject analysis

A análise de variância (ANOVA) comparou as médias de orgulho autêntico, orgulho hubrístico e alegria entre os cenários. Os resultados evidenciaram que não houve diferença entre os apelos de orgulho autêntico (M_{authentic-pride-Cen1} = 6.26; SD = 0.89 and M_{authentic-pride-Cen2} = 6.50; SD = 0.68; F[1, 50] = 1.140, p = .291); of joy (M_joy-Cen1 = 6.19; SD = 1.02 and M_joy-Cen2 = 6.28; SD = 0.80; F[1, 50] = 0.130, p = .720); and of hubristic pride (M_{hubristic-pride-Cen1} = 2.44; SD = 1.18 and M_{hubristic-pride-Cen2} = 2.09; SD = 0.88; F[1, 50] = 0.575, p = .452). Figure 4 below summarizes the within-subject and between-subject analyses of the appeals in Experiment 3.

Figure 4
Mean comparison of appeals between scenarios.

Probability of donating

When questioning whether the respondent would be willing to donate to ensure that the company could manufacture more of these products, the survey revealed a difference in the probability of donation among respondents in the different scenarios. Through the between-subject ANOVA, respondents manipulated by the authentic pride scenario (M_{authentic-pride} = 4.46; SD = 1.79) had a higher value than those manipulated by the hubristic pride scenario (M_{hubristic-pride} = 3.42; SD = 1.85), and this difference was significant (F[1, 50] = 4.202, p = .046; Figure 5). When analyzing whether there was a difference between respondents for concern about pro-environmental behavior, no difference between conditions was found (F[1, 50] = 0.099, p = .755).

Figure 5
Probability of donating.

Discussion

The results of this experiment add to the evidence that pride is a one-dimensional emotion in the Brazilian context; however, this time, authentic pride exhibited the highest results and had a similar result to joy in the authentic pride scenario. This demonstrates that when Brazilians are asked to recall situations of pride they have experienced, they will have an authentic memory of pride and, in some cases, an authentic and happy one.

Regarding the probability of donation to a pro-environmental cause, it is noted that in the authentic and happy scenario, there is a greater probability that the individual will donate. This result demonstrates that it is possible to motivate donations through positive emotions, a finding contrary to that reported by Amatulli et al. (2019), where donations had an effect only in the negative scenario. Furthermore, the ability to use pride appeals for donations is emphasized, as already demonstrated Song and Wen (2019). Then, it was demonstrated that the scenario with the highest probability of donation is the one related to something the person has done, thus revealing that people feel more interested in donating when they take action. Adding to the finding of Paramita et al. (2020), in which the action must be evidenced, it is expected that when the person performs an action that is seen by others, there will be a greater probability of donation. Furthermore, Paramita et al. (2020) reinforce that narcissistic people are more likely to donate and reveal that they have done so; these are traits of hubristic pride, which for Brazilians is authentic pride.

It is noteworthy that, despite the result of this study demonstrating a difference in behavioral intention (donation) based on the emotional appeals of hubristic and authentic pride, the results also indicate that pride is rarely understood as two-dimensional in the Brazilian context, as revealed in Experiments 2 and 3. It is noted that the result found in this study demonstrates a difference in behavioral intention based on the emotional appeals of pride but is divided into two (i.e., hubristic and authentic), which does not coincide with the Brazilian reality raised by Experiments 2 and 3. Thus, pride is considered a one-dimensional variable for the following experiment, as can be found in much of the literature (Decrop & Derbaix, 2010; McFerran et al., 2014; Lima et al., 2019). Thus, to answer H1, we have the following emotions: guilt, fear, pride, and joy, given that pride will be analyzed one-dimensionally.

EXPERIMENT 4

Experiment 4 analyzed the impact of various emotions on the consumer using fear, guilt, joy, and pride appeals (see Figures A8 to A11 in the data and materials made publicly available). Fear is a negative emotion focused on the ego, which aims to escape a dangerous situation related to physical integrity (Lewis et al., 2010; Solomon, 2007). Guilt is a negative emotion focused on the other, in which the intention is to prompt the individual to engage in a process of self-regulation and, in comparison with the values of society, recognize the error in the decision already made or that will be made (Rodríguez-Torrez et al., 2005; Tracy & Robins, 2007a). Moreover, joy is a self-regulatory emotion that occurs after a positive ego goal is achieved; therefore, it is a positive, ego-focused emotion (Adams et al., 2011).

Pride is a positive, self-conscious emotion focused on the other and has the function of evaluating the publicly inserted self, which analyzes its behavior in social situations (Hong et al., 2021). As an emotion that has divergent facets, pride, in its hubristic form, symbolizes an excessive feeling of contentment that one may have about oneself; that person is then seen as vain and arrogant with a feeling of superiority. Conversely, the positive aspect of pride manifests itself in situations where one feels admiration for an accomplishment or feat, an achievement related to one’s effort, or satisfaction with one’s action. Thus, H1 is resumed, in which it is adduced that there is a difference between the effects of emotional appeals on behavioral intention in relation to organic products for personal care.

Method

A total of 278 responses (86.33% female, M_age = 28.13, SD = 8.32) were collected from February to June 2021 using Google Forms. Respondents were entered into a between-subject experiment with four scenarios: fear appeal (n = 67), guilt appeal (n = 70), pride appeal (n = 72), and joy appeal (n = 69). Participants were randomly³ exposed to one of four advertising conditions. A one-way ANOVA and the Bonferroni post hoc test were used for data analysis.

Initially, respondents were asked whether they had already purchased green products, and if they answered yes, they were asked how often they consume these products. Then, the respondents were asked whether they had previously used organic products for personal care. In sequence, the participants answered the following constructs with adaptations in the scales (Table 3 in the data and materials made publicly available): favorable attitude toward green products (Chang, 2011); ad skepticism (Mohr et al., 1998); ad persuasion (Pham & Avnet, 2004); pro-environmental behavior (Chang, 2011); knowledge about the product class (Chang, 2004); favorable attitude toward the advertised product (Lepkowska-White et al., 2003); and intention to purchase the advertised product (Lepkowska-White et al., 2003). Answers were provided on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from one = ‘totally disagree’ to seven = ‘totally agree.’ The use of randomization and other variables made it possible to estimate whether the sample is homogeneous (Hernandez et al., 2014). Therefore, it was expected that the variables - attitude toward green products, skepticism about the ad, ad persuasion, pro-environmental behavior, and knowledge about the class of products - had no difference between the appeals.

Result

In all analyses, manipulated appeals were compared with the variables: attitude toward green products, skepticism about the ad, ad persuasion, pro-environmental behavior, knowledge about the class of products, attitude toward to the advertised product, and purchase intention for the advertised product. As expected, there was no difference for attitude toward green products, skepticism about the ad, ad persuasion, pro-environmental behavior, and knowledge about the class of products, providing evidence of sample homogeneity (Table 1 in the data and materials made publicly available).

It is evident that the attitude toward the advertised product created differences between the manipulated appeals: pride (M_pride = 5.73; SD = 1.14); joy (M_joy = 4.87; SD = 1.48); fear (M_fear = 4.58; SD = 1.68); guilt (M_guilt = 4.46; SD = 1.55), (F[3, 274] = 10.630, p = 0.000); as did purchase intention for the advertised product: pride (M_pride = 5.46; SD = 1.41); joy (M_joy = 5.10; SD = 1.48); fear (M_fear = 4.87; SD = 1.83); guilt (M_guilt = = 4.71; SD = 1.82), (F[3, 274] = 2.745, p = 0.043). Then, the result of the Bonferroni test for analsysis of the attitude toward the advertised product indicates that the pride appeal was different from the other three, with the others exhibiting no significant difference (Table 2 in the data and materials made publicly available). This indicates that the pride appeal aroused a greater attitude toward the advertised product. As for the purchase intention, only the pride (M_pride = 5.46) and guilt (M_guilt = 4.71) appeals revealed significant differences (Figures 6 and 7). Thus, this result supports H1a and H1b, indicating that there are differences between appeals for an attitude toward and intention to purchase organic products for personal care.

Figure 6
Favorable attitude toward the advertised product.

Figure 7
Purchase intention toward the advertised product.

Discussion

It is evident that the pride appeal had a significantly greater impact on the attitude toward the advertised product when compared to the other appeals, supporting H1a. Regarding purchase intention, it was found that pride had a greater effect than guilt, thus supporting H1b. However, previous research has demonstrated that pride did not influence purchase intention (Lima et al., 2019). Furthermore, one must understand how Brazilians see pride, since previous studies have indicated that authentic pride is seen as joy and hubristic pride is seen as pride. This finding reinforces the potential for using pride as an other-focused emotion to change attitudes (Tracy & Robins, 2007a, 2007b). No entanto, não houve diferença significativa entre as outras emoções, embora os valores sejam acima da média.

However, no significant difference was found between the other emotions, although the values were above average.

It should be noted that pride is seen as a positive valence appeal, and since it reached the highest value for both attitude toward the product and for purchase intention, this result diverges from several studies that found negative valence appeals to be more effective (Amatulli et al., 2019; Levin et al., 1998; Olsen et al., 2014). This result reinforces the notion that positive appeals are effective and do not cause harm from exposure as negative appeals do (Amatulli et al., 2019; Olsen et al., 2014). Therefore, based on the four experiments, H1 can be supported by the fact that there is a difference between the effects of emotional appeals on behavioral intention regarding organic personal care products, with an emphasis on the pride appeal.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

It is well established that emotional appeals are important for inducing emotional responses in recipients and influencing consumer behavior. However, there is disagreement in the literature about the use of emotional appeals for green cosmetics and their effects (Amatulli et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2016; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016). Current research has explored the influence of emotional appeals on behavioral intention regarding organic personal care products.

Experiment 1 concluded that appeals often may not convey the desired message or may not be perceived by the receiver as intended. The appeals of authentic pride and hubristic pride demonstrated inconsistencies with the message perceived by the respondents. The appeal of authentic pride brought greater joy, whereas the appeal of hubristic pride brought greater value to authentic pride, along with joy. Experiment 2 was an attempt to validate the result found in the first experiment, indicating that authentic pride is seen as joy, while hubristic pride is seen as authentic pride. Thus, it is suggested that, in the Brazilian context, the pride construct is one-dimensional and is perceived by the receiver as a sign of arrogance. The findings demonstrate that while pride can be understood as a one-dimensional emotion of the self in relation to others (Tracy & Robins, 2004), authentic pride can be understood by the receiver as joy (Tracy & Robins, 2007b; Tracy et al., 2009). The results demonstrate that the operationalizations of the two dimensions of pride differ (Panchal & Gill, 2020; McFerran et al., 2014).

Then, Experiment 3 introduced a second attempt to validate the one-dimensional construct of pride while analyzing whether individuals were more likely to make donations to companies that develop organic cosmetics if pride was stimulated. The results add to previous evidence of the one-dimensional behavior of pride in the Brazilian context. In addition, asking the consumer to remember a situation of pride they experienced produces thoughts of authenticity and happiness, which leads to a greater likelihood of donation. In this study, donations are more likely when consumers remember what they did rather than who they are.

Finally, Experiment 4 explored the effect of various emotions on attitude toward the advertised product and purchase intention. The study found that pride achieved relevant results compared to other appeals, supporting H1a and H1b. Furthermore, it was identified that, in a consumer behavioral context, pride could increase the attractiveness of certain products (Griskevicius et al., 2010; Yang & Zhang, 2018), such as organic products. This study advances the understanding of pride as the most suggestive appeal in the consumer’s favorable behavioral intention toward organic personal care products.

In short, this research builds on previous work on emotional appeals (e.g., Akbari, 2015; Dillard et al., 2017; Song & Wen, 2019) and their impact on the behavioral intention to purchase green products (Amatulli et al., 2019; Corbett, 2002; Hong et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2016; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016). However, it is important to emphasize that this article uses a series of experiments to identify the unidimensionality of pride in the context of the Brazilian consumer. In addition, to identify the decisive effect of positive appeals on donation with an emphasis on the appeal of pride, on the attitude toward the product, and in the purchase intention, results diverge from the literature (Amatulli et al., 2019; Olsen et al., 2014). Furthermore, it is noteworthy that, together, the experiments performed helped carry out the final experiment and provided the achievement of the general objective.

Theoretical implications

Current research provides several theoretical implications. First, facets of pride were examined in the context of the Brazilian consumer and green products. Although previous research in psychology and marketing offers valuable insights into facets of pride and buying behavior (Tracy & Robins, 2004; 2007a; 2007b; Septianto et al., 2020), few studies have focused on consumers’ perceptions about green advertisements and products. The first three experiments in this study resulted in interesting theoretical contributions, adding to the evidence that pride is a one-dimensional emotion in the Brazilian context. The appeal of authentic pride brought greater joy than the feeling of authentic pride. Similarly, the appeal of hubristic pride brought greater value to authentic pride and joy. The reason for this result may be related to the fact that, in Brazil, pride has a pejorative meaning.

For Brazilian consumers, pride can convey a negative meaning to other individuals. Tracy and Robins (2004) state that the facets of pride are structured under a semantic threshold. As a result, for Brazilians, characteristics related to a tendency to be motivated by personal goals and a self-focus on actions and efforts to achieve goals (Hong et al., 2021; Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007b) relate to the meanings of achievement and joy. For this reason, respondents understood the characteristics of hubristic pride, a motivation to display uniqueness and distinction from others, as true pride. These findings reposition the discussion on pride from a one-dimensional perspective (Decrop & Derbaix, 2010; Lima et al., 2019; McFerran et al., 2014) and indicate that one of the facets of pride can be understood as joy.

The second contribution of this study questions the traditional focus of research on negative emotions, since the impact of pride and joy was greater than that of guilt and fear. Contrary to what the literature claims about negative valence appeals being more effective than positive valence appeals regarding the consumption of green products (Amatulli et al., 2019; Levin et al., 1998; Olsen et al., 2014), current research offers alternative contributions. In the context of organic cosmetics, it was found that positive valence appeals had a greater influence on both the attitude toward the product and the purchase intention. Furthermore, it is understood that these appeals are more assertive and induce a better behavioral and sustainable response on the part of consumers.

Responses to emotional appeals in sustainable advertising are mirrored in the process defined by Lazarus (1991) of threat > appraisal > coping behavior. Consumers’ responses to advertising messages or appeals can affect their attitudes and opinions (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Lazarus, 1991; Roseman, 1991). Therefore, the appeals of fear and guilt (negative valence) can generate anger, retreat, or discouragement as emotional responses (Brennan & Binney, 2010). Adding fear and guilt about a social or ecological problem for which they are not directly responsible can generate an escape for a consumer, in addition to being distressing and exhausting in the purchase decision process (Brennan & Binney, 2010). Furthermore, this study adds to the need for future research on sustainable consumption, looking more carefully at the range of positive emotional experiences that play a role in encouraging such purchase patterns.

This study’s third and last contribution verified the disposition of the pride appeal in advertisements about green consumption. The literature was blunt about claims that the appeal of pride had the slightest effect among emotional appeals for high-involvement products (Akbari, 2015; Amatulli et al., 2019; Brennan & Binney, 2010; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016). Nevertheless, this study diverges from previous research when stating that consumers, in the contexts of pride, have more attitudes toward the advertised organic product.

These results suggest that the appeal of pride may be related to the ‘green distinction’ as a means of increasing green capital, proposed by Horton (2003). For the author, environmentally conscious consumers exhibit a conspicuous ‘greening’ in their lives and seek these values as ‘routes to distinction.’ It is worth noting that, to a large extent, the main beneficiary of green consumption is not always the consumers themselves but rather other consumers or society as a whole. This conception indicates that pride, in the context of green consumption, creates a feeling of collaboration with the environment, evoking the principle of ‘clean hands’ and the supposed ‘feelings of good conscience or moral superiority’ (Horton, 2003).

Iyer and Muncy (2009) attributed to these individuals the label of ‘global impact consumers,’ who are concerned with how society sees them and, therefore, are very aware of their actions and the opinions that others will have of them because of their behavior (Iyer & Muncy, 2009). In this way, the feelings and responses attributed to the appeal of pride can be interpreted as communication from these consumers about who they are and how they want society to perceive them. This result contradicts the findings of previous studies about the appeal of pride (Dovidio & Penner, 2004; McFerran et al., 2014; Panagopoulos, 2010), and adds that eco-friendly behavior can be influenced, at higher levels, by pride. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the respondents in this survey were not consumers engaged in sustainability. In other words, they did not have previously internalized norms and behaviors, which suggests that the appeal of pride may be more efficient in introducing new consumers to green consumption.

In disagreement with previous research (Amatulli et al., 2019; Brennan & Binney, 2010; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016), this study found that using guilt and fear (i.e., negative appeals) to support sustainable consumption does not produce a more positive attitude about a product or the intent to purchase it than positive appeals. Therefore, advertisers who launch negative campaigns to generate lasting behavioral changes must consider that consumers develop coping strategies to protect their emotional and psychological well-being (Brennan & Binney, 2010). Furthermore, although fear and guilt are widely used in advertising (Amatulli et al., 2019; Arthur & Quester, 2004; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016), consumer responses to pride and joy appeals had greater positive impacts on the favorable attitude and purchase intention in the context of green consumption.

Management implications

The practical implications of this study suggest that the appeal of pride (positive valence and other-focused) can promote a more sustainable consumer lifestyle as buyers develop a positive attitude through green advertising. Marketers can increase purchase intent and evaluation of their green product by communicating pride and joy in green advertising. As described earlier, pride may be a more widely used appeal to communicate environmental sustainability, but relevant research has been too sparse to guide practice in any meaningful way. Thus, to increase the consumer’s behavioral intention regarding the green product, positive appeals (pride and joy) are suggested.

Furthermore, it is evident that a green lifestyle has been growing in popularity in recent years (Corbett, 2002; Iyer & Muncy, 2009; VanDyke & Tedesco, 2016). Although many see the role of advertising as a means of increasing demand, marketers recognize the troubling implications of overconsumption. In this way, it is believed that the use of pride in advertisements, which is more suggestive and attractive, can introduce the green consumption concept to individuals who do not yet practice it. Second, caution is suggested in projecting appeals of guilt and fear, as these advertisements may focus on distant problems instead of emphasizing the recognition of practical benefits. Creating ads that focus on consumers’ role in sustainability can be more efficient.

It is emphasized that marketing professionals who seek to influence their consumers’ purchase intention must underline their focus on sustainability. A new generation of ecologically conscious consumers is emerging who behave more sustainably, value environmentally friendly and ethical practices, and, above all, visibly demonstrate these practices to society (Deloitte, 2021). Therefore, instilling pride can be an important strategy to motivate purchase intention and attitude toward a product. In addition, it can be advantageous for marketers to demonstrate to consumers that their products are sustainable and that those who buy them are helping the environment. This point deserves further investigation, as current research indicates that people do not do good deeds because they are altruistic but because of the benefits they receive, such as social confirmation (Romani et al., 2016).

Finally, the probability of motivating a consumer to donate in support of sustainable goods is highlighted in advertisements based on authentic pride. Unlike the findings by Amatulli et al. (2019), it is possible to motivate donations in advertisements conveying positive emotions. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize the ability to use pride appeals for donation (Song & Wen, 2019). Ads that emphasize what the individual has done can contribute to greater donations; for example, reminding the consumer of how deserving they are for their efforts or accomplishments can be more efficient in the context of green consumption.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

The current research has examined the effect of emotional appeals in advertisements on attitude toward and intention to use green products. From the findings, the importance of positive valence appeals is noted; these should be used instead of negative valence ones, since the effect on the message receiver is greater and carries no ill effects. Furthermore, it was also identified that (one-dimensional) pride could be explored as an impactful appeal on favorable attitude and purchase intention toward green products.

The article deepens the discussion of the use of emotional appeals and their impact on consumers, mainly in the Brazilian context, since it was found that, for Brazilians, hubristic pride is identified as pride while authentic pride is identified as joy. However, the study had some limitations. It is not possible to stimulate the two situations of pride reported in the literature, but it is understood that this occurs in Brazil. Thus, it is suggested that further research explore how pride happens in this national context and whether the existing scale accurately captures the phenomenon. In addition, the sample size in Experiment 3 was small, constituting a limitation of the study. Moreover, another limitation refers to the differences in the images and sources of the appeal in Experiment 4, which can cause differences in the respondents’ perceptions that were not measured. Therefore, it is suggested that future researchers use standard formatting for the appeals. Finally, the form of randomization performed in the studies is a limitation, because when choosing a number from one to ten, the participant would not necessarily have the same probability of falling into each condition.

As a suggestion for future research, further investigations are recommended that analyze the difference in the valences of the appeals and their focus. As these were used only as a criterion for selecting emotions, this research explored emotions in their individuality. Future research is also suggested to examine the relationship of emotional appeals between engaged and non-engaged consumers with sustainable consumption. Thus, it is proposed to replicate this study to better understand this phenomenon with other products. It is also advised that researchers use the theory of regulatory focuses to explain how Brazilians perceive the message and to better discuss the effect of negative and positive valences and the perception of the message by ego-focused or other-focused individuals. Furthermore, future studies may find explanations of why pride is seen in Brazil as one-dimensional and pejorative, which is a research gap to be explored.

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• 1
  . After answering the filter question, two questions were asked: (i) the first showed four figures (car, bicycle, boat, and train) and the respondents were asked to prove that they were not a robot by marking the figure containing a boat; all respondents scored correctly. Afterwards, they were asked to choose a number from 1 to 4; by marking option 1 or 2 they were directed to the hubristic pride appeal and by marking 3 or 4 to the authentic pride appeal. However, this form of randomization is a limitation of the study.
• 2
  . After answering the filter question, two questions were asked: (i) the first showed four figures (car, bicycle, boat, and train) and the respondents were asked to prove that they were not a robot by marking the figure containing a boat; all respondents scored correctly. Afterwards, they were asked to choose a number from 1 to 4; by marking option 1 or 2 they were directed to the hubristic pride appeal and by marking 3 or 4 to the authentic pride appeal. However, this form of randomization is a limitation of the study.
• 3
  . Participants were asked to choose a number from 1 to 8. When checking option 1 or 2, they were directed to the pride appeal; when checking 3 or 4, to the joy appeal; when checking 5 or 6, to the fear appeal; and when checking 7 or 8, to the guilty appeal. However, this form of randomization is a limitation of the study.

• JEL Code:

  M370, M310.

• Peer Review Report:

  The Peer Review Report is available at this external URL.

• Note:

  This text is translated from the original Portuguese version, which can be accessed here.

• Copyrights

  RAC owns the copyright to this content.

• Funding

  The authors state that there was no financial support for the research in this article.

• Plagiarism Check

  RAC maintains the practice of submitting all documents approved for publication to the plagiarism check, using specific tools, e.g.: iThenticate.

• Peer Review Method

  This content was evaluated using the double-blind peer review process. The disclosure of the reviewers’ information on the first page, as well as the Peer Review Report, is made only after concluding the evaluation process, and with the voluntary consent of the respective reviewers and authors.

• Data Availability

  The authors claim that all data used in the research have been made publicly available through the Harvard Dataverse platform and can be accessed at:
  Souza, Lucas Lopes Ferreira de; Sousa, Caio Victor de Paula; Dumont, Julia Jorge Rodrigues; Maia, Lorena Medeiros, 2023, "Replication Data for: "Organic Cosmetics and the Use of Emotional Appeals" published by RAC-Revista de Administração Contemporânea", Harvard Dataverse, V1.
  https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/SHTB3L
  RAC encourages data sharing but, in compliance with ethical principles, it does not demand the disclosure of any means of identifying research subjects, preserving the privacy of research subjects. The practice of open data is to enable the reproducibility of results, and to ensure the unrestricted transparency of the results of the published research, without requiring the identity of research subjects.

Edited by

Editor-in-chief:

Marcelo de Souza Bispo (Universidade Federal da Paraíba, PPGA, Brazil)

Associate Editor:

Emílio José M. Arruda Filho (Universidade da Amazônia, Brazil)

Data availability

The authors claim that all data used in the research have been made publicly available through the Harvard Dataverse platform and can be accessed at:

Souza, Lucas Lopes Ferreira de; Sousa, Caio Victor de Paula; Dumont, Julia Jorge Rodrigues; Maia, Lorena Medeiros, 2023, "Replication Data for: "Organic Cosmetics and the Use of Emotional Appeals" published by RAC-Revista de Administração Contemporânea", Harvard Dataverse, V1.

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/SHTB3L

RAC encourages data sharing but, in compliance with ethical principles, it does not demand the disclosure of any means of identifying research subjects, preserving the privacy of research subjects. The practice of open data is to enable the reproducibility of results, and to ensure the unrestricted transparency of the results of the published research, without requiring the identity of research subjects.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  22 May 2023
• Date of issue
  2023

History

• Received
  22 Mar 2022
• Reviewed
  12 Dec 2022
• Accepted
  19 Dec 2022