Central auditory processing and reading processes in children and adolescents: integrative review

Souza, Cintia Alves de; Marques, Danielle Cristine; Escarce, Andrezza Gonzalez; Lemos, Stela Maris Aguiar

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Brasil

Audiology - Communication Research

Español English

Brasil

Español English

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Sumário

Literature Review • Audiol., Commun. Res. 25 • 2020 • https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-6431-2020-2366 copy

Central auditory processing and reading processes in children and adolescents: integrative review

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

ABSTRACT

Purpose

To review studies investigating the existing interface between central auditory processing and reading processes in children and adolescents.

Research strategy

Studies published from 2008 to 2019 were selected through a bibliographic survey in the following electronic databases: BVS - Lilacs (Virtual Health Library) and PubMed (US National Library of Medicine).

Selection criteria

Studies available in full; published in Portuguese, English or Spanish; performed with children or adolescents; and that addressed the central auditory processing interfaces and reading processes. Literature review articles and articles with a lower level of scientific evidence were excluded.

Results

A total of 1124 studies were found in the databases searched. Of these, 19 were excluded as they were on more than one base. The titles and abstracts of 1105 articles were analyzed, of which 92 were selected for full reading and, at the end, 46 articles were selected. In the review, it was observed that most studies were cross-sectional, evaluated temporal processing skills and compared groups of students with and without reading difficulties.

Conclusion

Studies have shown that there is an association between reading and listening skills, as difficulty in listening skills tasks is common in participants with reading skills difficulties.

Keywords:
Auditory perception; Hearing tests; Reading; Child; Adolescent development

Author	Country	Design	Casuistic	Tools	Main findings of the study
Chaubet et al.⁽²⁵25 Chaubet J, Pereira L, Perez AP. Temporal resolution ability in students with dyslexia and reading and writing disorders. Int Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2014;18(2):146-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1363465. PMid:25992081. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1363465... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	56 participants: 11 with dyslexia, 15 with reading and writing disorders and 30 from the group without change.	Audiological assessment and GIN.	The GIN test similarly identified difficulty in individuals with reading and writing disorders and in individuals with dyslexia. The performance of the typical group was better than the other two.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 10-15 y.	Audiological assessment and GIN.
Vatanabe et al.⁽²⁶26 Vatanabe TY, Navas ALGP, Mariano SPB, Murphy CB, Durante AS. Desempenho de crianças com distúrbio de leitura após o treino auditivo. Audiol Commun Res. 2014;19(1):7-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S2317-64312014000100003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S2317-64312014... ⁾	Brazil	Experimental	20 participants: 10 with reading difficulties and 10 without school difficulties.	Initial and post auditory evaluation of TPF, DPT, GIN, Clinical Reading Protocol and PAT.	The auditory training was effective in improving temporal and reading skills in children who had reading difficulties.
	Brazil	Experimental	Age range: 8 y.
Murphy-Ruiz et al.⁽²⁷27 Murphy-Ruiz PC, Penaloza-Lopez YR, Garcia-Pedroza F, Poblano A. Right cerebral hemisphere and central auditory processing in children with developmental dyslexia. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2013;71(11):883-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0004-282X20130172. PMid:24394876. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0004-282X20130... ⁾	México	Cross-sectional	40 participants: 20 with dyslexia and 20 in a group without alterations.	Assessment of writing and reading comprehension and accuracy; TPF and DPT, recognition of musical tone and identification of environmental sounds.	Children with dyslexia performed worse in all PAC tests when compared to the typical group, including those involving the right brain hemisphere.
	México	Cross-sectional	Age range: 7-11 y.
Oliveira et al.⁽²⁸28 Oliveira JC, Murphy CFB, Schochat E. Processamento auditivo (central) em crianças com dislexia: avaliação comportamental e eletrofisiológica. CoDAS. 2013;25(1):39-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S2317-17822013000100008. PMid:24408169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S2317-17822013... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	38 participants: 22 with dyslexia and 16 in a group without alterations..	Complete audiological evaluation, PEATE, single word reading/reduced version test, text reading/adaptation test, FR test, TDD, TPF, P300.	The results suggested a change in temporal processing skills and figure-background in children with dyslexia.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 9-12 y
Simões et al.⁽²⁹29 Simões MB, Schochat E. Transtorno do processamento auditivo (central) em indivíduos com e sem dislexia. Pró-Fono Rev Atual Cient. 2010;22(4):521-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-56872010000400027. PMid:21271110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-56872010... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	40 participants: 20 with dyslexia and 20 with TPAC.	Audiological assessment, FR, TDD and TPF tests	The probability of change in FR and TDD tests was higher in the TPAC group than in the group with dyslexia. The TPF presented the same probability of change in both groups.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 7-12 y.	Audiological assessment, FR, TDD and TPF tests
Boscariol et al.⁽³⁰30 Boscariol M, Guimarães CA, Hage SRDV, Cendes F, Guerreiro MM. Processamento temporal auditivo: relação com dislexia do desenvolvimento e malformação cortical. Pró-Fono Rev Atual Cient. 2010;22(4):537-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-56872010000400030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-56872010... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	20 participants: 11 with dyslexia and 9 in a group with no alterations.	ABFW (phonology), reading and writing assessment (spontaneous writing, Phonological Skills Profile test, PCS), TDE, oral reading speed; peripheral audiological assessment, RGDT and/or RGDT Expanded.	It was found that children with developmental dyslexia could have altered auditory temporal processing, with damage to phonological processing.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 8-14 y.
Pelitero et al.⁽³¹31 Pelitero TM, Manfredi AKDS, Schneck APC. Avaliação das habilidades auditivas em crianças com alterações de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(4):662-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000062. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	28 participants: 13 with learning change from reading and writing and 15 from the group without change.	Otoscopy, audiological evaluation, TDE, ASPA and the PSI test.	More changes were observed in the AP tests in the group with learning alterations. However, there was no association with significance.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 8-12 y.
Pinheiro et al.⁽³²32 Pinheiro FH, Oliveira AMD, Cardoso ACV, Capellini SA. Testes de escuta dicótica em escolares com distúrbio de aprendizagem. Rev Bras Otorrinolaringol. 2010;76(2):257-62.⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	40 participants: 20 with learning disability and 20 with good school performance.	Basic audiological assessment and TDD, SSW and FR tests.	The group of schoolchildren with learning disabilities performed less well than the group without difficulties, reflecting difficulties in processing auditory information.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 8-12 y.	Basic audiological assessment and TDD, SSW and FR tests.
Abdo et al.⁽³³33 Abdo AGR, Murphy CFB, Schochat E. Habilidades auditivas em crianças com dislexia e transtorno do déficit de atenção e hiperatividade. Pró-Fono Rev Atual Cient. 2010;22(1):25-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-56872010000100006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-56872010... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	30 participants: 10 with dyslexia, 10 with ADHD and 10 from the group without change.	Complete audiological evaluation, FR, TDD and TPF tests.	In TPF, children with dyslexia performed statistically worse than the typical group, suggesting the existence of a relationship between temporal abilities and reading disorder.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 7-12 y.	Complete audiological evaluation, FR, TDD and TPF tests.
Pinheiro et al.⁽³²32 Pinheiro FH, Oliveira AMD, Cardoso ACV, Capellini SA. Testes de escuta dicótica em escolares com distúrbio de aprendizagem. Rev Bras Otorrinolaringol. 2010;76(2):257-62.⁾	Brazil	Experimental	40 participants: 20 with learning disability and 20 without learning disability. Each group was subdivided into two and only half of the participants received auditory training.	Audiological examination; TDD and SSW; CONFIAS.	Performance in auditory skills after the application of the auditory training program improved in participants with and without learning disabilities.
	Brazil	Experimental	Age range: 8-14 y.	The Audio Training® auditory training program was held.
Frota et al.⁽¹⁰10 Frota S, Pereira LD. Processamento auditivo: estudo em crianças com distúrbios da leitura e da escrita. Rev Psicopedag. 2010;27(83):214-22.⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	60 participants: 30 with unfavorable results in at least one of the reading and writing tests and 30 in the group without change.	Basic audiological evaluation; Phonological Awareness Test; reading speed evaluation; reading aloud test; writing evaluation with dictation of real and invented words; understanding of narratives through the linguistic notion of figure-background; SSW Test; Dichotic Test; Sound Sequencing Test; and Localization Test for Non-Verbal Sounds.	In most central auditory processing tests, the performance of children without reading and writing disorders was better than the performance of the group with the deficit.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 9-12 y.
Murphy et al.⁽³⁴34 Murphy CFB, Schochat E. How auditory temporal processing deficits relate to dyslexia. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2009;42(7):647-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2009000700009. PMid:19578644. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2009... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	60 participants: 33 with dyslexia and 27 from the group without change.	Otoscopy, immittance and tonal and speech audiometry; frequency and duration discrimination tests, frequency and duration ordering.	The group with dyslexia showed significantly lower performance in all situations.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 9-12 y.
Pinheiro et al.⁽³⁵35 Pinheiro FH, Capellini SA. Desenvolvimento das habilidades auditivas de escolares com distúrbio de aprendizagem, antes e após treinamento auditivo, e suas implicações educacionais. Rev Psicopedag. 2009;26(80):231-41.⁾	Brazil	Experimental	40 participants: 20 with learning disability and 20 without learning disability. Each group was subdivided into two and only half of the participants received auditory training.	Audiological evaluation; PSI TDD and SSW tests in pre- and post-test situations.	Schoolchildren with learning disabilities presented statistically significant changes. The performance of both groups, after auditory training, was statistically superior.
	Brazil	Experimental	Age range: 8-14 y.	Audio Training® Auditory Training Program.	Changes in BP directly interfere with the reception and decoding of information, reflecting delays in language development and learning to read and write in the classroom.
Engelmann et al.⁽³⁶36 Engelmann L, Ferreira MIDC. Avaliação do processamento auditivo em crianças com dificuldades de aprendizagem. Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol. 2009;14(1):69-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-80342009000100012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-80342009... ⁾	Brazil	Exploratory Cross-sectional	21 participants: 9 with more fluency in reading and 12 with less fluency in reading.	Basic audiological assessment; writing assessment; silent reading assessment; fluency and reading comprehension assessment; ASPA; TDD and SSW; PPS.	The study identified verbal sequential memory as a relevant aspect, by relating the scores of central auditory processing tests to the learning difficulties evidenced by lower reading fluency.
	Brazil	Exploratory Cross-sectional	Age range: 7-11 y.
Germano et al.⁽³⁷37 Germano GD, Pinheiro FH, Cardoso ACV, Santos LCA, Padula NAMR, Capellini SA. Relação entre achados em neuroimagem, habilidades auditivas e metafonológicas em escolares com dislexia do desenvolvimento. Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol. 2009;14(3):315-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-80342009000300006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-80342009... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	20 participants: 10 with dyslexia and 10 with good academic performance.	Basic audiological examination, ASPA, PSI, TDD and SSW tests, Phonological Awareness Test.	The performance of the group with good academic performance was better than the group with dyslexia.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 10 y. and 4 months (average age)
Capellini et al.⁽³⁸38 Capellini SA, Germano GD, Cardoso ACV. Relação entre habilidades auditivas e fonológicas em crianças com dislexia do desenvolvimento. Rev Sem Assoc Bras Psicol Escol Educ. 2008;12(1):235-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-85572008000100016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-85572008... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	20 participants: 10 with dyslexia and 10 with good academic performance.	Basic audiological examination; ASPA, PSI, TDD and SSW tests, Phonological Awareness Test.	School children with dyslexia presented difficulties in attention listening skills, coding, organization and integration of auditory information that compromised the use of phonological skills such as attention, analysis, synthesis, and work memory.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 10 y and 4 months (average age)
Steinbrink et al.⁽¹⁹19 Steinbrink C, Knigge J, Mannhaupt G, Sallat S, Werkle A. Are temporal and tonal musical skills related to phonological awareness and literacy skills? Evidence from two cross-sectional studies with children from different age groups. Front Psychol. 2019;10(16):805. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00805. PMid:31040806. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.008... ⁾	Germany	Cross-sectional	Study 1: 54 participants	Five musical tasks (temporal and tonal musical skills); phonological processing evaluation (phonological awareness, short-term and working phonological memory, speed of appointment).	In both studies, rhythm reproduction and pitch perception proved to be significant predictors of phonological awareness.
			Age range: 5 y. and 9 months (average age)		The results indicated that musical processing skills still contributed expressively to the prediction of the number of correctly written graphemes, since the reproduction of the rhythm predicted, significantly, the number of correctly written graphemes, as well as the use of alphabetic spelling.
			Study 2: 96 participants
			Age range: 8 y. and 9 months (average age)
Wang et al.⁽³⁹39 Wang HS, Wang NY, Chen IC, Tsao Y. Auditory identification of frequency-modulated sweeps and reading difficulties in Chinese. Res Dev Disabil. 2019;86:53-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.01.006. PMid:30660853. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.01... ⁾	Taiwan	Case-control	55 participants: 28 with dyslexia and 27 in control group.	Chinese character recognition, lexical tone perception, frequency discrimination and FM scan direction identification.	Children with developmental dyslexia, who use the Chinese language, performed significantly worse in all tasks.
	Taiwan	Case-control	Age range: 9 y. (average age)		Poor auditory frequency processing may be associated with phonologically deficient Chinese developmental dyslexia.
Souza et al.⁽²⁰20 Souza CA, Escarce AG, Lemos SMA. Ordenação temporal e competência leitora de palavras e pseudopalavras: estudo preliminar. CoDAS. 2018;30(2):e20170102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2317-1782/20182017102. PMid:29791619. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2317-1782/2018... ⁾	Brazil	Pilot stage of the study Cross-sectional	22 participants	Auditory evaluation: meatoscopy, EOAT and, in case of “failure” result, tympanometry; TCLPP, MSV and MSNV tests, TPF and DPT.	The Simple temporal ordering auditory skills, as well as TCLPP result, showed normal results in most participants.
	Brazil	Pilot stage of the study Cross-sectional	Age range: 8-10 y.		The association of the reading competence with the temporal processing has not demonstrated statistical significance.
Vanvooren et al.⁽⁴⁰40 Vanvooren S, Poelmans H, De Vos A, Ghesquière P, Wouters J. Do prereaders’ auditory processing and speech perception predict later literacy? Res Dev Disabil. 2017;70:138-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.09.005. PMid:28938227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.09... ⁾	Belgium	Longitudinal	87 participants: 44 with increased risk of dyslexia and 43 from families with normal reading.	Auditory temporal processing tasks: FM, RT and DI; speech perception in noise task; phonological awareness; RAN; knowledge of letters; standardized reading tests.	The speech perception in noise has proved to be the factor that most contributed to the later phonological consciousness and a predictor of reading mediated by the association with phonology.
	Belgium	Longitudinal	Age range: 5 y.
Barker et al.⁽⁴¹41 Barker MD, Kuruvilla-Mathew A, Purdy SC. Cortical auditory-evoked potential and behavioral evidence for differences in auditory processing between good and poor readers. J Am Acad Audiol. 2017;28(6):534-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.3766/jaaa.16054. PMid:28590897. http://dx.doi.org/10.3766/jaaa.16054... ⁾	New Zealand	Longitudinal	32 participants: 15 good readers and 17 readers with bad performance.	Feather Squadron System: evaluation of behavioral measures of BP; recording of auditory cortical evoked potentials (CAEPs) by speech.	The study found altered central auditory processing in poorly performing readers using Feather Squadron behavioral measures and speech evoked cortical potentials.
	New Zealand	Longitudinal	Age range: 9-11 y.
Johnson et al.⁽⁴²42 Johnson EP, Pennington BF, Lee NR, Boada R. Directional effects between rapid auditory processing and phonological awareness in children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;50(8):902-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02064.x. PMid:19298469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.20... ⁾	United States	Longitudinal	108 participants, tested in two different moments: 75 with speech disorder and 33 from the control group.	Grey Reading Oral Test; Basic Reading, Spelling and Reading Comprehension subtests of the Wechsler Test; phonological awareness; fast AP assessment through a three-condition auditory masking task.	The analysis indicated a top-down effect, such that the phonological awareness had a greater impact over time, than the inverse. Regressions indicated a lack of direct impact of rapid central auditory processing on reading ability.
	United States	Longitudinal	Age range: average age 5 y. and 6 months (time 1) and 8 y. and 3 months (time 2)		Additional hierarchical regressions examined how well the rapid central auditory processing predicted reading ability when accounting for phonological awareness and vocabulary.
Yalçinkaya et al.⁽⁴³43 Yalçinkaya F, Muluk NB, Sahin S. Effects of listening ability on speaking, writing and reading skills of children who were suspected of auditory processing difficulty. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2009;73(8):1137-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.04.022. PMid:19477531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.... ⁾	Turkey	Case-control	67 participants: 26 with TPAC and 41 from the control group.	Observational Assessment Scale (ORS), composed of four categories: listening, speaking, reading and writing	It was concluded that for school children, the TPAC may lead to or be associated with difficulties in written language.
	Turkey	Case-control	Age range: 7-8 y.
Dawes et al.⁽⁴⁴44 Dawes P, Sirimanna T, Burton M, Vanniasegaram I, Tweedy F, Bishop DV. Temporal auditory and visual motion processing of children diagnosed with auditory processing disorder and dyslexia. Ear Hear. 2009;30(6):675-86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0b013e3181b34cc5. PMid:19672194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0b013e3181... ⁾	United Kingdom	Case-control	139 participants: 22 with DPAC, 19 with dyslexia and 98 from the control group.	Standardized PA test (SCAN-C or SCAN-A); TOWRE (assesses reading); OSCCI spelling test; temporal hearing task battery.	Auditory psychophysical performance correlated positively with performance in SCAN-C, but not with reading ability. There were no significant differences between the performance of the DPAC group and dyslexia and no evidence of specific temporal hearing impairment.
	United Kingdom	Case-control	Age range: 6-13 y.
Dawes et al.⁽⁴⁵45 Dawes P, Bishop DV. Psychometric profile of children with auditory processing disorder and children with dyslexia. Arch Dis Child. 2010;95(6):432-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2009.170118. PMid:20501538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2009.17011... ⁾	United Kingdom	Case-control	44 participants: 25 with DPAC and 19 with dyslexia.	TOWRE (assesses reading); OSCCI spelling test; standardized PA test (SCAN-C and SCAN-A).	There were equally high levels of attention, reading and language problems in both groups. The follow-up evaluation suggested high levels of autistic characteristics, previously not recognized within the DPAC group.
	United Kingdom	Case-control	Age range: 10 y. and 4 months (average age))
Ferguson et al.⁽⁴⁶46 Ferguson MA, Hall RL, Riley A, Moore DR. Communication, listening, cognitive and speech perception skills in children with auditory processing disorder (APD) or Specific Language Impairment (SLI). J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2011;54(1):211-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0167). PMid:20689032. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2010... ⁾	United Kingdom	Cohort	88 participants: 22 with DEL, 19 with DPA and 47 from the control group.	QI, digit amplitude, repetition of meaningless words, phonological evaluation, reading, grammar, sentence and non-verbal intelligibility of VCV.	There was no difference between the performance of children with DEL and with DPA, and both groups had consistent and significantly lower performance compared to the children in the control group. Speech intelligibility, both in noise and silence, was not impaired in the DEL and DPA groups.
	United Kingdom	Cohort	Age range: 6-13 y.
Billiet et al.⁽⁴⁷47 Billiet CR, Bellis TJ. The relationship between brainstem temporal processing and performance on tests of central auditory function in children with reading disorders. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2011;54(1):228-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0239). PMid:20689038. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2010... ⁾	United States	Cohort	30 participants: 10 with dyslexia and abnormal brain stem time (G1), 10 with dyslexia and normal brain stem time (G2), and 10 typical controls.	Tonal audiometry and tympanometry, ABR test per click and tests with BioMARK; TDD, TPF, FC and DFBP tests.	All G2 participants met the diagnostic criteria for central auditory processing disorder, while only 4 G1 participants met the criteria.
	United States	Cohort	Age range: 8-12 y.
Boets et al.⁽⁴⁸48 Boets B, Vandermosten M, Poelmans H, Luts H, Wouters J, Ghesquière P. Preschool impairments in auditory processing and speech perception uniquely predict future reading problems. Res Dev Disabil. 2011;32(2):560-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12.020. PMid:21236633. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12... ⁾	Belgium	Longitudinal	62 participants: 16 dyslexics, 20 non-dyslexics with high family risk of dyslexia and 26 non-dyslexics with low family risk.	FM, GIN, noise speech perception and categorical speech perception tests; phonological awareness tests; literacy tests, standardized spelling test and six reading tests.	These longitudinal data indicated that alterations in central auditory FM processing, speech perception, and phonological awareness were present together in kindergarten children who later developed dyslexia.
	Belgium	Longitudinal	Age range: (1st, 2nd and 3rd time): 5 y. and 6 months, 6 y. and 10 months, 8 y. and 4 months (average age).
Miller et al.⁽⁴⁹49 Miller CA, Wagstaff DA. Behavioral profiles associated with auditory processing disorder and specific language impairment. J Commun Disord. 2011;44(6):745-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.04.001. PMid:21636094. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011... ⁾	United States	Observational Cross-sectional	64 participants: 35 participants with DPA and 29 in therapy for language impairment.	Audiological evaluation (tonal audiometry, tympanometry and EOAPD); TPF; DPT; TDD and SSW; phonological memory; reading fluency; verbal operating memory.	There were no differences in means between children with and without clinical diagnosis of DPA. Differences in group means in reading fluency were observed for children classified as DPA/non DPA and differences in group means in repetition of non-words, spatial working memory and two PA tests were observed for children classified as DEL/non DEL.
	United States	Observational Cross-sectional	Age range: 10 y. and 1 month (average age).
Poelmans et al.⁽⁵⁰50 Poelmans H, Luts H, Vandermosten M, Boets B, Ghesquière P, Wouters J. Reduced sensitivity to slow-rate dynamic auditoryinformation in children with dyslexia. Res Dev Disabil. 2011;32(6):2810-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.05.025. PMid:21645986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.05... ⁾	Belgium	Case-control	58 participants: 13 with dyslexia, 25 with low risk with normal reading and 20 with high risk with normal reading.	FM, RT, DI; Noise Perception of Words and Noise Perception of Senses tests; Phonological awareness.	Children with dyslexia had difficulties with slow-rate central dynamic auditory processing and speech perception in noise. These problems persisted until the sixth year.
	Belgium	Case-control	Age range: 11 y.
Messaoud-Galusi et al.⁽⁵¹51 Messaoud-Galusi S, Hazan V, Rosen S. Investigating speech perception in children with dyslexia: is there evidence of a consistent deficit in individuals? J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2011;54(6):1682-701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2011/09-0261). PMid:21930615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2011... ⁾	United Kingdom	Case-control	113 participants: 62 with dyslexia and 51 average readers.	Phonological Assessment Battery; Non-Spectral Repetition Child Test; TOWRE Word Reading Efficiency Test; experimental tests, used to assess speech perception in noise and silence (Synthetic Continuum, Identification Tasks, Discrimination Tasks, Words in Noise, Words in Noise in Connected Speech).	Children with dyslexia, on average, performed worse than average readers in the task of identifying synthetic syllables in the silent discrimination and intermediate category (but not when tested using an adaptive procedure). Speech perception did not correlate with pseudo-word reading or phonological processing - the main abilities related to dyslexia.
	United Kingdom	Case-control	Age range: 6 y. and 6 months - 13 y. and 7 months
Vandewalle et al.⁽⁵²52 Vandewalle E, Boets B, Ghesquière P, Zink I. Auditory processing and speech perception in children with specific language impairment: relations with oral language and literacy skills. Res Dev Disabil. 2012;33(2):635-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.11.005. PMid:22155538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.11... ⁾	Belgium	Longitudinal	32 participants: 8 with specific language disorder (LSD) and literacy delay, 10 with LSD and normal literacy and 14 with typical development.	FM and gap detection between channels; speech-noise perception and categorical perception; phonological awareness, verbal short-term memory, RAN; standardized reading and spelling tests.	Both normal reading groups did not differ in terms of speech perception or central auditory processing. Speech perception was significantly related to reading and writing in grades 1 and 3, and had a unique predictive contribution to the growth of reading in the 3rd grade, even after controlling reading level, phonological ability, central auditory processing and oral language skills in the 1st grade.
	Belgium	Longitudinal	Age range: 6 y. and 3 months - 6 y. and 8 months
Georgiou et al.⁽⁵³53 Georgiou GK, Papadopoulos TC, Zarouna E, Parrila R. Are auditory and visual processing deficits related to developmental dyslexia? Dyslexia. 2012;18(2):110-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dys.1439. PMid:22419585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dys.1439... ⁾	Canada	Case-control	62 participants: 21 with dyslexia, 21 from the control group (chronological age) and 20 from the control group (reading ability).	Discrimination of Amplitude Elevation Time and Simple Time of Auditory Reaction; Phonological Processing; Speed of Rapid Naming (Digits and Objects); Phonological Memory; Spelling Choice and Quick Test of Spelling; Fluency of Reading.	Children with dyslexia did not have central auditory processing deficits and did not perform worse than their controls, of reading ability in any of the cognitive processing measures used in the study.
	Canada	Case-control	Age range: 8-11 y.
Chobert et al.⁽⁵⁴54 Chobert J, François C, Habib M, Besson M. Deficit in the preattentive processing of syllabic duration and VOT in children with dyslexia. Neuropsychologia. 2012;50(8):2044-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.05.004. PMid:22595658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychol... ⁾	France	Case-control	48 participants: 24 with normal reading and 24 with dyslexia.	Alouette reading test, phonological awareness and reading strategy tests, electrophysiological recording (EEG and EOG); pre-attention processing of speech sounds using the MMN. The children were presented with a sequence of syllables that included patterns (the “ba” syllable) and deviations in vocal frequency, vowel duration, and voice onset time (VOT), which were near or far from the pattern (small and large deviations).	No differences were found between the groups for frequency deviations. While children with normal reading showed larger MMNs for large deviates in vowel duration and VOT, than for small deviates, no size deviation effect was found in children with dyslexia.
	France	Case-control	Age range: 9-11 y.
Zaidan et al.⁽⁵⁵55 Zaidan E, Baran JA. Gaps-in-noise (GIN©) test results in children with and without reading disabilities and phonological processing deficits. Int J Audiol. 2013;52(2):113-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/14992027.2012.733421. PMid:23167240. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/14992027.2012.... ⁾	United States	Prospective case-control	61 participants: 31 with dyslexia and phonological awareness deficit (G1) and 30 with normal reading skills (G2).	Tonal Audiometry and immittance, Phonological Abilities Profile and GIN test.	Children from G1 had longer GAP detection thresholds and lower GAP identification scores than children from G2, with significant differences between groups.
	United States	Prospective case-control	Age range: 8-9 y.
Johnson et al.⁽⁵⁶56 Johnson BW, McArthur G, Hautus M, Reid M, Brock J, Castles A, et al. Lateralized auditory brain function in children with normal reading ability and in children with dyslexia. Neuropsychologia. 2013;51(4):633-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.12.015. PMid:23333528. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychol... ⁾	Australia	Case-control	32 participants: 16 with dyslexia and 16 with normal reading.	Reading proficiency and phonological awareness tests; regular, irregular and pseudo-word reading; tonal audiometry; Auditory responses were elicited, using two types of broadband noise lasting 500 ms, which resulted in the perception of a central noise and a lateralized tone. Diotic pitch stimuli were included to assess the possibility of binaural hearing loss in children with dyslexia.	The responses were strongly lateralized in children from the control group.
	Australia	Case-control	Age range: 8-12 y.		Children with dyslexia showed significantly less lateralization of cortical auditory function and a different pattern of auditory lateralization development with age.
Grube et al.⁽⁵⁷57 Grube M, Cooper FE, Kumar S, Kelly T, Griffiths TD. Exploring the role of auditory analysis in atypical compared to typical language development. Hear Res. 2014;308:129-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2013.09.015. PMid:24112877. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2013.... ⁾	United Kingdom	Exploratory	201 participants: 28 with dyslexia and 173 with typical development.	Decision of rhyme writing, spelling, word reading, pseudo-words reading; repetition of non-words (from the Working Memory Test for Children battery); inverted digit recall; auditory test (4 pitch perception tasks, 4 rhythm and time tasks and 4 timbre perception tests based on modulation).	The dyslexic group performed significantly worse in language, but not in auditory measures. There was a tendency to decrease the correlations between the processing of short sequences and language skills, contrasted by a significant increase in the correlation for the basic processing of a single sound, particularly in the domain of modulation.
	United Kingdom	Exploratory	Age range: 11 y. (average age)
Steinbrink et al.⁽²¹21 Steinbrink C, Zimmer K, Lachmann T, Dirichs M, Kammer T. Development of rapid temporal processing and its impact on literacy skills in primary school children. Child Dev. 2014;85(4):1711-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12208. PMid:24359600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12208... ⁾	Germany	Longitudinal	236 participants	Audiometry Tonal Liminal; Rapid Auditory and Visual Temporal Processing; standardized tests of reading and writing.	It has been suggested that rapid central auditory processing skills have a causal influence on the development of literacy.
	Germany	Longitudinal	Age range: 5-7 y.
Ahmmed et al.⁽²²22 Ahmmed AU, Ahmmed AA, Bath JR, Ferguson MA, Plack CJ, Moore DR. Assessment of children with suspected auditory processing disorder: a factor analysis study. Ear Hear. 2014;35(3):295-305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.aud.0000441034.02052.0a. PMid:24496289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.aud.0000441... ⁾	United Kingdom	Cross-sectional	110 participants	SCAN-C (low-redundancy monaural speech and dichotic listening tests); central multicenter auditory processing IMAP (retrograde masking, simultaneous masking, frequency discrimination, non-verbal intelligence, working memory, reading, attention alert and motor reaction time for auditory and visual stimuli).	The study identified a general central auditory processing factor, as well as two other cognitive factors, “operational memory and executive attention” and “processing speed and alert attention”, to substantiate the deficits in children with suspected DPAC.
	United Kingdom	Cross-sectional	Age range: 6-11 y.		Individuals with central auditory processing deficiencies, along with tests of the other two cognitive factors, can explain the co-occurrence of DPA and other disorders.
Hämäläinen et al.⁽⁵⁸58 Hämäläinen JA, Lohvansuu K, Ervast L, Leppänen PH. Event-related potentials to tones show differences between children with multiple risk factors for dyslexia and control children before the onset of formal reading instruction. Int J Psychophysiol. 2015;95(2):101-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.04.004. PMid:24746550. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.201... ⁾	Finland	Case-control	37 participants: 11 with family history of dyslexia and 26 from the control group.	Knowledge of the letters of the Finnish alphabet; phonological identification, (phonological processing task); RAN. Passive eccentric EEG experiment with sinusoidal sounds with changes in frequency, duration or intensity of sound.	Responses to standard stimuli showed a negative voltage shift in children at risk of reading problems compared to children in the control group.
	Finland	Case-control	Age range: 5-6 y.		In addition, children at risk of reading problems had higher late discriminatory negativity (LDN) in the range of altered sound frequency than control children.
Rocha-Muniz et al.⁽⁵⁹59 Rocha-Muniz CN, Zachi EC, Teixeira RA, Ventura DF, Befi-Lopes DM, Schochat E. Association between language development and auditory processing disorders. Rev Bras Otorrinolaringol. 2014;80(3):231-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bjorl.2014.01.002. PMid:25153108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bjorl.2014.0... ⁾	Brazil	Prospective case-control	75 participants: 25 with DEL, 25 with TPA and 25 from the control group.	TFR, TDD and TPF.	The inter-group analysis showed that in all tests, children in the TPA and DEL groups performed significantly worse than the control group. In addition, the DEL group showed worse results than the TPA group.
	Brazil	Prospective case-control	Age range: 6-12 y.	TFR, TDD and TPF.
Calcus et al.⁽⁶⁰60 Calcus A, Colin C, Deltenre P, Kolinsky R. Informational masking of complex tones in dyslexic children. Neurosci Lett. 2015;584(1):71-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2014.10.026. PMid:25459281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2014.... ⁾	Belgium	Case-control	60 participants: 20 with phonological dyslexia, 20 from the control group by reading level and 20 from the control group by age.	Evaluation of informational masking (IM) of complex sequences.	The performance of normal reading control of children increased throughout the experiment, reaching a significantly better level than dyslexics in the last blocks.
	Belgium	Case-control	Age range: 7-11 y.
Tomlin et al.⁽⁶¹61 Tomlin D, Dillon H, Sharma M, Rance G. The Impact of Auditory Processing and Cognitive Abilities in Children. Ear Hear. 2015;36(5):527-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0000000000000172. PMid:25951047. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0000000000... ⁾	Australia	Case-control	155 participants: 50 from the control group and 105 from the group referred for PA evaluation.	TPF, TDD, GIN, MLD and LiSN-S; Reading Fluency (Wheldall Passage Reading Evaluation).	In the scores of the group referred for PA evaluation in the TDD, TPF tests, the results showed significantly lower cognitive abilities, in general, in children referred for PA evaluation, compared to the control group.
	Australia	Case-control	Age range: 7-12 y.
Murphy et al.⁽⁶²62 Murphy CF, Moore DR, Schochat E. Generalization of auditory sensory and cognitive learning in typically developing children. PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0135422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135422. PMid:26267275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0... ⁾	Brazil	Experimental	58 participants, distributed in five groups: 11 (attention), 13 (memory), 12 (sensory), 13 (placebo) and 9 (control).	The tests were applied to the five groups, before and after the training period with the Active Listening software.	All the trained groups, especially older children, showed significant learning in the trained task. In pre- and post-training measures, most groups showed improvements in the largest number of tasks.
	Brazil	Experimental	Age range: 5-8 y.	Visual digit spam tasks, sustained auditory attention, Brazilian Compressed Speech Test; Phonological Awareness Test, Isolated Word Reading Test.
Carroll et al.⁽²³23 Carroll JM, Solity J, Shapiro LR. Predicting dyslexia using prereading skills: the role of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016;57(6):750-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12488. PMid:26662375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12488... ⁾	United Kingdom	Longitudinal	267 participants	Sound of letters; frequent word reading; Phonological awareness; RAN; Verbal Short Term Memory; Central auditory processing (DEST Sound Order Test); word reading accuracy (British Scale of Skills Single Word Reading Test).	Short term verbal memory, phonological awareness, and rapid appointment were good predictors of later misreading. Deficit in visual search and central auditory processing were also present in a minority of poor readers.
	United Kingdom	Longitudinal	Age range: 6-8 y.
Souza et al.⁽²⁴24 Souza CA, Escarce AG, Lemos SMA. Competência leitora de palavras e pseudopalavras, desempenho escolar e habilidades auditivas em escolares do ensino fundamental. Audiol Commun Res. 2019;24:1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2317-6431-2018-2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2317-6431-2018... ⁾	Brazil	Cross-sectional	109 participants	TCLPP, TDE and ASPA.	There was an association with statistical significance between the reading competence in words/pseudowords and the children's school performance. However, there was no evidence of association, with statistical significance, between reading competence in words/pseudowords, sociodemographic variables and auditory skills.
	Brazil	Cross-sectional	Age range: 7-10 y.	TCLPP, TDE and ASPA.

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