Wood vinegar-based product (SDfender) as an adjuvant to insecticide to control fall armyworm in corn crop

Produto à base de extrato pirolenhoso (SDFender) como adjuvante de inseticidas para o controle da lagarta-de-cartucho do milho

Abstract

The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) is one of the main pests of corn crops, causing significant damage to plants and yield losses. Control of this pest is predominantly achieved through synthetic insecticides, the continuous use of which can lead to environmental contamination and the emergence of pest populations resistant to their active ingredients. Therefore, this study evaluated the performance of a wood-vinegar-based product (SDfender) combined with the insecticide methomyl for fall armyworm control and increased maize yield. Additionally, the SDfender's production parameters were assessed. To assess product quality, the absence of contaminants and the chemical profile of its organic fraction were evaluated by instrumental techniques. Different doses of the combination were evaluated for defoliation levels, control efficacy, and grain yield. The results demonstrated that the combination of methomyl and SDfender potentiated the control of S. frugiperda, reducing plant defoliation and increasing productivity. The application of 1.0 L ha⁻¹ of the insecticide methomyl, combined with 3.0 or 4.0 L ha⁻¹ of commercial SDfender, proved an excellent strategy for controlling the fall armyworm in corn crops, consistently outperforming methomyl alone. SDfender is manufactured to stable physical and chemical properties and a consistent chemical composition. This ensures that, over time, the product can be purchased by corn growers and applied to their crops with the same expected performance.

Keywords:
Zea mays L.; Spodoptera frugiperda; pest control; natural pesticides; pyrolysis products

Resumo

A lagarta-do-cartucho (Spodoptera frugiperda) é uma das principais pragas das culturas de milho, causando danos significativos às plantas e perdas na produtividade. O controle dessa praga é realizado predominantemente por meio de inseticidas sintéticos, cujo uso contínuo pode levar à contaminação ambiental e ao surgimento de populações de pragas resistentes aos seus princípios ativos. Portanto, este estudo avaliou o desempenho de um produto à base de vinagre de madeira (SDFender), combinado ao inseticida metomil, no controle da lagarta-do-cartucho e no aumento da produtividade do milho. Adicionalmente, foram avaliados os parâmetros de produção do SDFender. A qualidade do produto, a ausência de contaminantes e o perfil químico de sua fração orgânica foram avaliados por meio de técnicas instrumentais. Diferentes doses da combinação foram avaliadas quanto aos níveis de desfolha, à eficácia de controle e à produtividade de grãos. Os resultados demonstraram que a combinação de metomil e SDFender potencializou o controle de *S. frugiperda*, reduzindo a desfolha das plantas e aumentando a produtividade. A aplicação de 1,0 L ha⁻¹ do inseticida metomil, combinada com 3,0 ou 4,0 L ha⁻¹ do produto comercial SDFender, mostrou-se uma excelente estratégia para o controle da lagarta-do-cartucho em culturas de milho, superando consistentemente o uso isolado de metomil. O SDFender é produzido de modo a apresentar propriedades físicas e químicas estáveis, bem como uma composição química consistente. Isso garante que, ao longo do tempo, o produto possa ser adquirido pelos produtores de milho e aplicado em suas lavouras, mantendo o desempenho esperado.

Palavras-chave:
Zea mays L.; Spodoptera frugiperda; controle de pragas; pesticidas naturais; produtos de pirólise

1. Introduction

Corn (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important crops worldwide, serving as human food, animal feed, and industrial raw material (Sanodiya et al., 2023). Globally, corn production, which is among the four most produced primary crops, reached 1.2 billion tons in 2022, being one of the biggest contributors to food security and agro-industrial chains in various regions of the world, surpassed only by sugarcane, with 1.9 billion tons (FAO, 2024a, b, c). In Brazil, corn production and trade play a central role in food security, rural incomes, and the economy, given their importance to the trade balance and the agricultural sector's economic performance. Its use ranges from human and animal food to the high-tech industry (Duarte et al., 2021; Guimarães, 2024). In 2024, the country produced around 115 million tons of corn on 21.4 million hectares, resulting in a production value of approximately 88 billion reais. This planted area was only surpassed by soybeans, which occupied 46.2 million hectares (IBGE, 2025). In addition to supplying the domestic market, Brazil is one of the world's leading exporters of corn, ranking second among exported products in 2022, when the country earned approximately US$12.07 billion from exporting 43.16 million tons of this grain, mainly to the European Union (Brasil, 2024).

Among the factors limiting corn production are pests, diseases, and weed infestations. Among the pests that most impact corn production in Brazil, species such as Diceraeus furcatus, Diceraeus melacanthus, Diabrotica speciosa, Conoderus spp., Melanotus spp., Scaptocoris castanea, Elasmopalpus lignosellus, Dalbulus maidis, and Rhopalosiphum maidis, respectively known as green stink bugs, wireworms, brown stink bugs, corn leafhoppers, corn aphids, and corn leafhoppers, stand out (Viana et al., 2002; Toledo et al., 2021). The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is one of the main pests of corn in Brazil and has motivated monitoring programs and integrated management strategies (Viana et al., 2002; Oliveira et al., 2023; Sari et al., 2023). Its severe attacks damage all growth stages and all corn plant structures, resulting in substantial economic losses due to reduced productivity and grain quality. The attack occurs above ground, preferably in the early vegetative stages. In later growth stages, the caterpillar is found defoliating leaves inside the whorl. Developing leaves suffer perforations and netting, and the apical portion of the whorl leaves may be eliminated. They cause ear drop or a reduction in grain number per ear (Buntin, 1986; Barimavandi et al., 2010; Bakry and Abdel-Baky, 2024).

The use of conventional synthetic pesticides is a key tool in the current management of S. frugiperda and other corn pests; however, their continuous use presents challenges, such as the development of insect resistance to insecticides in insect populations, environmental and food contamination, and impacts on human health and ecosystems (Basso et al., 2021; Lopes-Ferreira et al., 2022; Ngegba et al., 2025). These problems make it urgent to develop strategies that reduce doses of conventional insecticides without compromising treatment efficacy. One possible strategy is the combination of conventional pesticides with natural products (Ahmed et al., 2022), which can enhance the insecticidal effect and reduce the dose of chemicals needed for the insecticidal effect, thus reducing the adverse effects of applying synthetic pesticides in pest and disease control (Dassanayake et al., 2021; Ahmed et al., 2022).

In several regions worldwide, efforts to reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides have encouraged the adoption of biostimulants, natural products, and other bio-inputs as components of integrated pest management strategies. Among these alternatives, wood vinegar (WV) has attracted increasing attention in Asia, Europe, and other regions due to its potential to improve crop performance, suppress pests and diseases, and reduce the need for conventional agrochemicals (Tiilikkala et al., 2010; Aguirre et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2024; Leifeld and Walz, 2025). Among these alternatives, wood vinegar (WV) has attracted increasing attention in Asia, Europe, and other regions due to its potential to improve crop performance, suppress pests and diseases, and reduce the need for conventional agrochemicals (Tiilikkala et al., 2010; Aguirre et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2024; Leifeld and Walz, 2025). In this context, the WV is a promising natural product for use alongside conventional insecticides. This product, also known as pyroligneous acid, is obtained during pyrolysis, along with charcoal (Pimenta et al., 2018). With a rich chemical profile, WV is composed of organic acids, phenolic compounds, phenols, furfural, and other compounds that, in appropriate concentrations, can act as repellents and insecticides (Petter et al., 2013; Rahmat et al., 2015; Pimenta et al., 2018; Shetty et al., 2025). Furthermore, the application of WV can promote plant growth and improve the physical and chemical conditions and microbiota of the soil (Guerreiro et al., 2012; Togoro et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014; Maliang et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2022; Sivaram et al., 2022). Among all WV components, phenols and furfural are responsible for the product's bioactive properties (Tiilikkala et al., 2010; Theapparat et al., 2015).

Despite the large number of studies describing the positive effects of WV in agriculture (Grewal et al., 2018; Tiilikkala et al., 2010), a significant shortcoming across most cited studies is the lack of detailed descriptions of kiln and carbonization procedures. Furthermore, there is a gap regarding the chemical profiles of the WV types used in the assessments and also the lack of a description of properties such as density, color, pH, refractive index, water and acetic acid content, titratable acidity, phenolic content of the extractable organic fraction, and so on. Carbonization process parameters, the type of charred woody biomass or waste, and WV recovery procedures are well-known factors that affect the final quality of the product (Achmadi et al., 2013; Abas et al., 2018; Aguirre et al., 2020). Moreover, most WVs are used in the raw state, without the application of refining steps to ensure a high-quality product, despite several routines being available (Higashino et al., 2005; Pimenta et al., 2023; Gama et al., 2024)

Based on the research works cited above, strong indications arise that, in the combined use of conventional, natural, and synthetic products, the natural product can act as an adjuvant substance, which can increase the effectiveness of the synthetic product, enhancing its effects on the pest or improving the technical parameters of the application (Kumar et al., 2023). Bearing this premise in mind, the adjuvant effect of WV was demonstrated by Tiilikkala et al. (2010). The authors demonstrated that, alongside a conventional herbicide, WV potentiates its effect, reducing the herbicide dose required in the soil and increasing its efficiency. Given the above and the insecticidal and repellent properties of the chemical compounds present in WV, along with previous evidence of its adjuvant effect when combined with conventional agrochemicals, it is plausible that the association between WV and a synthetic insecticide could result in synergistic effects against S. frugiperda. Such an interaction could improve the efficiency of pest control, maintaining satisfactory performance with reduced insecticide doses, thus contributing to more sustainable pest management strategies. In this sense, the hypothesis proposed in this study is that the bioactive compounds present in WV can act synergistically with the synthetic insecticide, increasing its effectiveness against S. frugiperda. Consequently, the combined application of the two products may allow for a reduction in insecticide dosage while maintaining or improving pest control efficiency and crop productivity.

Hence, the combination of SDfender (a commercial WV) with a synthetic insecticide for controlling S. frugiperda, assessed in this study, represents an authentic innovation for maize cultivation. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the performance of SDfender in combination with a synthetic insecticide and to understand the dynamics of this combination at different product doses, in relation to productivity gains. Additionally, operational parameters of the WV production facility, product yields, the WV chemical profile by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and purity were assessed. This way, we intended to fill the gaps that prevent many works from being replicated by peers worldwide.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Wood vinegar recovery facility

In brief, the natural product assessed in this work as an adjuvant is the SDfender, a commercial wood vinegar (WV) produced on an industrial scale by S&D Organics Ltd., a company belonging to Santos & Dias Group (Martinho Campos, MG, Brazil – https://gruposdflorestal.com.br/ – a 19° 19′ 55″ S, 45° 14′ 13″ W). The recovery unit was designed for a production baseline of 150 tons per month of WV, but currently it exceeds 200,000 kg/month. The recovery facility consists of the following components, as shown in Figure 1. The facility operates continuously (24/7). Every 3-4 months, a 1-2-day shutdown is conducted for pipeline inspections and equipment maintenance.

Figure 1
Wood vinegar recovery facility (1) carbonization kilns, (2) entry of the underground smoke pipeline, (3) condensation device, (4) control room, and (5) storage tanks.

SDfender was chosen as the experimental material because it is a commercially produced WV (wild vegetable oil) obtained under standardized operating conditions and is currently available for agricultural use. Furthermore, it is part of an ongoing research line that has already yielded other scientific studies (Pimenta et al., 2023; Lima et al., 2026). Its commercial name is used throughout the manuscript exclusively to identify the specific material evaluated. This distinction is important because WVs produced from different raw materials and under different production conditions may exhibit substantially different chemical profiles and biological activities.

Figure 2 displays the front and rear views of the WV condensation device, which is wholly built of stainless steel, consisting of an exhaust fan, primary WV storage tanks, a smoke pipeline, two series-connected condensers (internal-tubes-and-hull type), four water-cooling towers, and a chimney. The methodology employed for the dimensioning and design of the recovery device followed the same approach as that ublished by Albuquerque et al. (2023). The system achieves an efficiency of around 97–98% of the maximum obtained in laboratory conditions, using the same type of eucalyptus firewood.

Figure 2
Front (A) and rear (B) views of the WV condensation unit.

The condensation device works in association with eight carbonization kilns, each with a capacity of 12.1 tons of firewood. To maintain continuous operation of the facility, the carbonization kilns are strictly synchronized, similarly to the routine described by Albuquerque et al. (2023), which ensures that at any moment two kilns are carbonizing and recovering WV, two others are at the beginning or end of carbonization, two kilns are cooling, and the remaining two kilns are engaged in charcoal unloading, firewood loading, and ignition.

2.2. Carbonization routine and process parameters

The carbonization process runs following a routine that includes 4 days of carbonization and 4 days of charcoal cooling. After the firewood is placed inside the carbonization kilns, the kilns are sealed and ignited. After sealing, the firewood load is ignited through an ignition hole with branches or small logs soaked in diesel oil. After the firewood load is ignited, the combustion at the ignition hole is fed with branches, so the heat generated gradually warms the firewood load. Strategically placed air inlets are kept to admit ambient air and feed oxygen to the process. After 3–5 hours of ignition, carbonization is considered ongoing, as evidenced by continuous white smoke emissions from the kiln’s chimney. The smoke temperature is continuously monitored. When the smoke reaches 90°C at the midpoint of the chimney, it is top-sealed, and the carbonization gases are routed through the underground pipeline to the WV recovery unit. The WV recovery step is continued, and as soon as the smoke reaches 220 °C, the process is shut down. That smoke temperature indicates that the internal kiln’s temperature is roughly 450 °C. Then, the smoke bypass is sealed, and the kiln is completely closed, including the chimney and air inlets. After that, the kilns are left for 4 days until the charcoal reaches an average temperature of 35–40 °C. At this point, charcoal is ready to be unloaded.

2.3. Commercial wood vinegar processing and refining to yield SDfender

All the WV recovered from the recovery facility is left for 3 weeks until complete settling of tars and heavy oils. After this time, the WV is transported to a filtration facility, where dissolved tar and any existing particulate matter are removed. Then, WV is industrially refined by bi-distillation under a 20 mmHg vacuum, using the procedures described by Pimenta et al. (2023), which were adopted as the standard by the manufacturing company, SD Organics. The refining process is designed to eliminate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and to remove some residual tar and heavy oils.

2.4. WV properties, absence of contaminants, and chemical profile analyses

As part of the industrial routine, after refining the WV (SDfender), samples are collected daily to determine the product’s physical and chemical properties, namely color, pH, density at 25 °C, and electrical conductivity. The acetic acid content is determined by following the procedures described by IPT (2020). The SDfender is analyzed to determine whether it is contaminant-free as advertised by the manufacturer, a vital piece of information to be directed to consumers. At this point, the contaminants listed in Table 1 are assessed, following the same step-by-step procedure described previously by Pimenta et al. (2023). The primary objective is to certify that the product meets the specifications of the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA-USA), and other international agencies for WV, specifically regarding the absence of contaminants from several chemical classes. These contaminants must be absent if the WV is intended for use as an eco-friendly product in agriculture, the food industry, and pharmaceutical applications, as well as for use as an additive in animal husbandry (Gama et al., 2024).

Table 1
Elements, chemical classes, and possible contaminants determined in the SDfender.

Classes	Chemical Species
Heavy metals and other elements	Aluminum, boron, cadmium, calcium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulfur, and zinc
Insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides (carbamates, organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, and other types)	4,4-DDD (p,p′-DDD ou p,p′-TDE), 4,4-DDE (p,p′-DDE), 4,4-DDT (p,p′-DDT), (aldicarb + aldicarb sulfone + aldicarb sulfoxide), aldrin, aminocarb, atrazine, carbaryl, carbofuran, cis-permethrin, cyanazine, cypermethrin, chlordane (sum of cis-, trans-, and oxychlordane), chlorfenvinphos, chlorobenzylate, chloroneb, chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos (dursban), coumaphos, deltamethrin, demeton-O, demeton-S, dieldrin, disulfoton, dihydrodicyclopentadienyl acrylate (DCPA), diuron, drins sum (aldrin + dieldrin + endrin), endosulfan I, endosulfan I (a + b + sulfate), endosulfan, endosulfan sulfate, endrin, etoprofos, fenchlorfós (fenchlorphos + fenchlorphos-oxan), fenitrothion (metation), fensulfothion, fenthion, phentoate, phorate, fosalone, phosmet, heptachlor (heptachlor epoxide cis + trans), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachloroethane, iprovalicarb, L-cyhalothrin, linuron, malathion, mancozeb, merphos, methamidophos, methidathion, metolachlor, methoxychlor, mevinphos, molinate, oxamyl, permethrin, pirimicarb, propenofos, propaphos, propachlor, propanil, quinalphos, simazine, tebuconazole, terbufos, tetrachlorvinphos (stirophos), tokuthion, trans-nonachlor, triazophos, and trichloronate
Mycotoxins	Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, and zearalenone
Dioxins and polychlorinated furans	1,2,3,4,6,7,8-heptachlorodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-heptachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 1,2,3,4,7,8,9-heptachlorodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,4,7,8-hexachlorodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,4,7-pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 1,2,3,4- tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 1,2,3,6,7,8-hexachlorodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,7,8,9-hexachlorodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,7,8,9-hexachlorodibenzo- p-dioxin, 1,2,3,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,7,8- pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, octachlorodibenzofuran, and octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons	Acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, fluorene, indene(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene, naphthalene; and total PAHs
Volatile organic compounds	Acetone, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, ethylene glycol, and methanol.

Independent laboratories routinely determine the abovementioned chemicals listed in Table 1 in accordance with the external audit program implemented by the SDfender manufacturer. Usually, the following standard analytical methods are employed: (FDA, 2010: SW 846 6010D:2018; 3050B:1996; 3052:2010); insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides (AOAC, 2019: CR 0104, CR-0118, CR-0120); mycotoxins (AOAC, 2019: CR-0059, CR-0104, CR 121 01, CR 0123 01, CR 0124-00, CR 0125 02); polychlorinated dioxins and furans (AOAC, 2019: CR-0109); polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (APHA, 2023: EPA 3500C:2007; EPA 8270E:2018); and volatile organic compounds (APHA 2023: EPA 5021A:2014/EPA 8260D:2017); (AOAC, 2019: CR-0094). The chemical profile of the organic fraction of the commercial WV was evaluated using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, following the standardized routine described by Pimenta et al. (2018) and Pimenta et al. (2023). At this step, the phenol and furfural contents, as well as other components of WV, are determined.

2.5. Site, climate, and soil at the experimentation site – Establishment of the corn crop

The experiment was conducted at the Terras Gerais Experimental Research Station, located at São José Farm, in Lavras, MG, Brazil (21°14’45’’S and 44°57’40’’W), at an altitude of 934 m. The predominant climate of the region, according to the Köppen-Geiger classification, is humid subtropical (Cwa), characterized by rainy summers and dry winters. During the crop cycle, some average climatological data were obtained from an automatic weather station installed in the experimental area: average, maximum and minimum temperatures of 23.9, 29.8 and 18.0 °C, respectively; average, maximum and minimum relative air humidity of 68.95, 86.33 and 51.57%, respectively; and average monthly rainfall between October and February of 101, 192, 260, 292 and 178 mm. The soil in the experimental area is a dystrophic Red Latosol with a clayey texture. Its main chemical characteristics and nutrient contents were pH = 6.2; organic matter = 25 g dm^-3; phosphorous (P) = 62 mg dm^-3; potassium (K) = 0.19 cmolc dm^-3; calcium (Ca) = 4.2 cmolc dm^-3; magnesium (Mg) = 1.3 cmolc dm^-3; cation exchange capacity of 7.59 cmolc dm^-3, and base saturation of 76%.

2.6. Experimental procedures

The seeds of hybrid corn SHS 5560 were sown manually on October 22, 2022, with a spacing of 0.5 m between rows and a population density of 72,000 plants ha⁻¹. Fertilization consisted of applying 15 kg ha⁻¹ of nitrogen, 60 kg ha⁻¹ of phosphorus, and 130 kg ha⁻¹ of potassium in the sowing furrows. In addition, 120 kg ha⁻¹ of nitrogen was applied as topdressing when the plants had 6 to 8 developed leaves. The experimental area was kept free of weeds through manual and mechanized weeding. Harvesting and threshing were carried out manually in mid-March, when all plants were fully mature.

2.7. Experimental design and treatment routine application

The experimental design was a randomized block design with 6 treatments, including a control that received no product (Table 2), and 4 replications. The plots consisted of five planting rows, each 5 m long, for a total area of 12.5 m². However, evaluations were conducted only on the three central rows, discarding two border rows between treatments. The commercial insecticide applied contains 215 g L^-1 of methomyl. Table 1 shows the product combinations used in the corn crop. The dosages tested were based on the manufacturers' recommended amounts per hectare for each product.

Table 2
Products and dosages applied to control the fall armyworm.

	Trataments	Doses (L ha-1)	Abbreviation
1	Control	-	CTRL
2	Methomyl only	1.0	1 MT
3	Methomyl + SDfender	1.0 + 3.0	1 MT + 3 SD
4	Methomyl + SDfender	1.0 + 4.0	1 MT + 4 SD
5	Methomyl only	0.5	0.5 MT
6	Metomil + SDfender	0.5 + 3.0	0.5 MT +3 SD

All treatments were applied on four dates, corresponding to different stages of corn plant development, according to Ritchie et al. (1993), namely at the beginning of the pest infestation; on 03/11/22, at stage V2; on 11/11/22, at stage V3; on 29/11/22, at stage V6; and on 27/12/22, at pre-tasseling (VT). Applications were carried out using a CO₂-pressurized backpack sprayer equipped with a boom containing six 110-02 fan-type nozzles operating at 40 psi.

To assess the efficacy of the experimental treatments, the following parameters were determined:

1. Phytotoxicity: evaluated in 20 plants per plot 7 days after each application, according to a percentage scale that assigns a score from 0 to 100% according to the intensity of the injuries, as also carried out by Penckowski et al. (2004).

2. Defoliation by fall armyworm: evaluated on 10 plants per plot, before, 3, and 6 days after the first, second, third, and fourth applications. For this, the Davis scale (Davis and Williams, 1994) was used, with scores from 0 to 9.

3. Number of S. frugiperda caterpillars of each size class (< 2 and ≥ 2 cm): evaluated in 20 plants per plot 10 days after the third application, considering the average number of live S. frugiperda caterpillars inside the whorls of the corn plants.

4. The effectiveness of the treatments in reducing defoliation and in controlling caterpillars, compared to the control, was determined using defoliation or caterpillar number data applied to Equation 1, adapted from Abbott (1925).

   $E\left(\%\right){}_{=}100-\left(\frac{E{f}_{trat}}{E{f}_{test}}\right)x100$(1)

Where:

E = efficacy (%)

Eftrat = result from each experimental treatment

Eftest = result from the control treatment.

1. 1000-grain weight (TGW) corrected for 13% moisture: 8 subsamples of 100 grains per plot were separated, and their masses were determined using a precision balance.

2. Grain productivity: the total weight of clean grains from the useful area of ​​the plots, corrected for 13% moisture, was converted to kilograms per hectare.

To perform the statistical analysis, the data were initially subjected to the normality (Shapiro-Wilk) and homoscedasticity (Bartlett) tests. Subsequently, analysis of variance was performed, and for variables with significant treatment effects, the Scott-Knott test (p < 0.05) was applied to compare treatments with the control.

3. Results

3.1. Wood vinegar recovery facility – Process yields

Based on 40 carbonization runs and considering the 8 kilns and the carbonization cycle of 8 days, the working parameters of the recovery facility were firewood volume/carbonization run (25 solid m³), wood basic density (0.485 ton/m³), firewood moisture content in bone-dry basis (25 – 30%), resulting in an average weight of charcoal/carbonization run of 4.1 tons and an average weight of WV/carbonization run of 5.5 tons. Based on those parameters, it was possible to achieve the operational results of the recovery facilities listed in Table 3.

Table 3
Operational results determined for the WV recovery facility.

Parameter	Sums	Results
Firewood weight/carbonization run (ton)	25 m3 x 0.485 ton/m3	12.1
Gravimetric yield in charcoal (%)	(4.1 tons of charcoal/12.1 tons of firewood )*100	33.9
Gravimetric yield in wood vinegar (%)	(5,5 ton EP/12,1 ton)*100	45.0
Firewood-to-charcoal conversion index (weight-to-weight ratio)	12.1 ton/4.1 ton	3.0 to 1.0
Monthly number of carbonization runs/kiln	30 days/8 days per cycle	3.8
Total monthly number of carbonization runs	8 kilns x 3.8 runs/month	30.4
Monthly charcoal weight per kiln (tons)	4.1 tons/run x 3.8 runs/month	15.6
Total monthly charcoal weight (tons)	15.6 ton/kiln x 8 kilns	124.6
Monthly WV weight per kiln (tons)	5.5 ton/run x 3,8 runs/month	20.9
Total monthly WV weight (tons)	20.9 tons/kiln x 8 kilns	167

3.2. WV properties, absence of contaminants, and chemical profile analyses

The properties of the SDfender are shown in Table 4. The quality parameters are within the expected range for WVs in carbonization processes in masonry kilns (Pimenta et al., 2023).

Table 4
Properties of the SDfender.

Property	Parameter
Color	Orange-yellowish
pH	2.81
Density	1.031 g cm-3
Acid acetic content (weight-to-weight %)	5.98
Conductivity (µS cm-1)	879

Additionally, Table 5 presents the results of the WV’s chemical profiling. Even though the eucalyptus WV composition was widely cited in previous works we published (Pimenta et al., 2023; Gama et al., 2024), Table 5 lists all the major components.

Table 5
Bioactive compounds annotated in the SDfender’s organic fraction.

Chemical component	Relative intensity (%)
Alcohols
3,5-dimethyl-cyclohexanol	0.28
Tetrahydro-2-furanmethanol	1.65
2-furanmethanol	0.39
Aldehydes and ketones
Cyclopentanone	1.25
2-methyl-cyclopentanone	0.95
3-methyl-cyclopentanone	2.36
2-cyclopenten-1-one	2.93
2-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	1.87
1-hydroxy-2-butanone	0.82
3,4-dimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	0.09
2,3,4-trimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	0.33
3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	1.20
2,3-dimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	1.16
3,4,5-trimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	0.12
2-Butanone, 1-(acetyloxy)-	0.32
2,3-pentanedione	0.57
5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde	4.89
2,5-dihydro-3,5-dimethyl-2-furanone	0.54
Acetophenone	0.13
5-methyl-2(5H)-Furanone	0.01
3-methyl-2(5H)-furanone	0.22
4,5-dimethyl-4-hexen-3-one	0.19
2(5H)-furanone	0.34
2-propylcyclohexanone	0.08
3-methyl-4-hexen-2-one	0.03
2,4-Dimethyl-1,3-cyclopentanedione	0.54
3-methyl-1,2-cyclopentanedione	0.01
Maltol	0.21
Furans and pyrans
Tetrahydro-2,2-dimethoxy-furan	0.33
2-(methoxymethyl)-furan	0.39
Tetrahydro-2,5-dimethoxy-furan	0.27
3-furaldehyde	0.39
Furfural	8.92
2-acetylfuran	3.90
Butyrolactone	0.39
2-acetyl-5-methylfuran	0.22
Furan-2-carbaldehyde, (N'-nitroamidino)-hydrazone	2.19
Organic acid
Acetic acid	2.45
Phenolic compounds
2-methoxy-phenol (guaiacol)	14.35
3-methyl-2-methoxy-phenol	0.16
2,6-dimethyl-phenol	0.08
2-methoxy-4-methyl-phenol	0.40
4-methyl-2-methoxy-phenol (creosol)	5.98
Phenol	9.34
2-methyl-phenol (o-cresol)	1.33
4-ethyl-2-methoxy-phenol	1.82
4-methyl-phenol (p-cresol)	0.58
2,6-dimethyl-phenol (2,6-xylenol)	0.42
3-methyl-phenol (m-cresol)	3.87
2,5-dimethyl-phenol (2,5-xylenol)	0.34
3,4-dimethoxy-phenol	0.15
4-propyl-2-methoxy-phenol	0.21
2,4-dimethyl-phenol (2,4-xylenol)	0.80
3-allyl-6-methoxy-phenol	0.08
2,6-dimethoxy-phenol (syringol)	8.30
4-methyl-2,6-dimethoxy-phenol	3.01
2,6-dimethoxy-4-allyl-phenol	0.09
Other compounds
N-nitrosodimethylamine	0.09
1-isopropyl-1-cyclopentene	0.02
1-acetylcyclohexene	0.11
3-methyl pyrrole	0.20
Methyl-2-furoate	1.63
Methylbenzoate	0.15
1,2-dimethoxy-benzene (veratrol)	0.23
Methyl 4-hydroxybutanoate	0.38
4,5-dimethyl-imidazole	0.09
1,2,3-trimethoxy-5-methyl-benzene	1.01
Minor compounds	1.86

3.3. Corn plant defoliation

Before the first application, all defoliation scores (Table 6) were similar and relatively low (0.6-1.6 on a 0-9 scale). However, three days after this application, CTRL treatment showed a significant increase in defoliation (score 3.85), which was higher than that of the insecticide treatments (1.03-1.68). The highest defoliation control efficiencies were observed with 1 MT + 4 SD (73.4%), 1 MT + 3 SD (71.4%), and 0.5 MT + 3 SD (68.80%). Six days after the first application, CTRL defoliation increased again (4.43) and remained significantly higher than the insecticide treatments (1.03 to 1.98). On that date, the efficacies of the 1 MT + 4 SD, 1 MT + 3 SD, and 0.5 MT + 3 SD treatments were similar and occurred in the same order as those obtained at three days. The treatments that applied only methomyl showed numerically lower efficacies than the other treatments and similar efficacies on both dates (around 65% with 1.0 L ha^-1 and 56% with 0.5 L ha^-1).

Table 6
Assessment of defoliation according to the Davis scale and the effectiveness of defoliation decrease by controlling the fall armyworm in a maize crop.

Treatment	Dosage (L ha-1)	First Application					Second Application
		PreviousNS	3 DAT		6 DAT		Previous	3 DAT		6 DAT
		Grade	Grade	E (%)	Grade	E (%)	Grade	Grade	E (%)	Grade	E (%)
Control	-	1.02	3.85 a	-	4.43 a	-	4.10 a	5.53 a	-	3.65 a	-
Methomyl	1.0	0.90	1.33 b	65.60	1.58 b	64.40	1.48 b	1.25 c	77.40	0.78 b	78.80
Methomyl + SDf	1.0 + 3.0	1.07	1.10 b	71.40	1.33 b	70.10	0.98 c	1.10 c	80.10	0.70 b	80.80
Methomyl + SDf	1.0 + 4.0	0.80	1.03 b	73.40	1.03 b	76.80	1.03 c	0.83 c	85.10	0.68 b	81.50
Methomyl	0.5	0.60	1.68 b	56.50	1.98 b	55.40	1.90 b	2.13 b	61.50	1.33 b	63.70
Methomyl + SDf	0.5 + 3.0	1.60	1.20 b	68.80	1.38 b	68.90	1.50 b	1.68 b	69.70	1.10 b	69.90
CV (%)	-	37.10	31.52	-	18.78		22.04	22.70		29.73	-
Mean	-	1.00	1.69	-	1.95		1.80	2.08		1.37	-
		Third Application					Fourth Application
Control	-	6.00 a	6.48 a	-	5.98 a	-	5.35 a	3.90 a	-	5.25 a	-
Methomyl	1.0	2.38 c	2.83 b	56.40	2.80 b	53.10	2.23 c	2.25 b	42.30	2.25 b	57.10
Methomyl + SDf	1.0 + 3.0	2.03 c	2.00 b	69.10	1.60 c	73.20	1.50 c	1.38 b	64.70	1.00 c	80.90
Methomyl + SDf	1.0 + 4.0	2.10 c	1.43 b	78.00	1.05 c	82.40	1.30 c	1.15 b	70.50	0.90 c	82.90
Methomyl	0,5	4.00 b	3.13 b	51.70	2.45 b	59.00	3.23 b	2.30 b	41.00	2.30 b	56.20
Methomyl + SDf	0.5 + 3.0	3.75 b	2.73 b	57.90	2.08 b	65.30	1.95 c	1.88 b	51.90	1.88 b	64.30
CV (%)	-	21.48	28.75	-	22.01	-	27.42	30.15	-	28.11	-
Mean	-	3.37	3.09	-	2.66	-	2.59	2.14	-	2.26	-

• SDf = SDfender; means followed by different letters are statistically dissimilar by the Scott-Knott test (p<0.05); NS = non-significant by the Scott-Knott test (p<0.05); E(%) = effectiveness in controlling defoliation by the experimental treatments compared to the control; DAT = number of days after the applications.

Before the second application (Table 6), CTRL defoliation (4.10) was already significantly greater than that of the insecticide treatments (0.98-1.90). Three days after the second application, CTRL defoliation increased (5.53) and was greater than the 1 MT, 1 MT + 3 SD, and 1 MT + 4 SD treatments (0.83 to 1.25), which showed less defoliation than 0.5 MT and 0.5 MT + 3 SD (2.13 and 1.68). The efficacies of 1 MT + 4 SD (85.1%) and 1 MT + 3 SD (80.1%) were the highest, followed by 1 MT (77.4%). The worst efficacy was 0.5 MT (61.5%). Six days after the second application, CTRL defoliation was lower (3.65) than at 3 days and was significantly higher than the insecticide treatments, which also showed a reduction in defoliation (0.68 to 1.33). The efficacies of the insecticide treatments, six days after the second application, were in the same order and with similar values ​​to those observed at 3 days, including at 0.5 MT.

The highest CTRL defoliation scores were observed in the evaluations for the third application (Table 6). They did not differ much before this application (6.0 on a scale of 0 to 9), nor at three (6.48) and six days after (5.98), with values significantly higher than in the other treatments. Before the third application, the 0.5 MT and 0.5 MT + 3 SD treatments also showed noteworthy defoliation (4.0 and 3.75, respectively), and the 1 MT + 3 SD (2.03) and 1 MT + 4 SD (2.10) treatments showed the lowest defoliation. Three days after the third application, the insecticide treatments did not differ significantly in defoliation (1.43 to 2.83), and the highest control efficiencies were achieved with 1 MT + 4 SD (78.0%) and 1 MT + 3 SD (69.1%). At the same time, the lowest efficacy was observed for 0.5 MT (51.7%). Six days after the third application, defoliation was quite distinct, with CTRL significantly higher, while 0.5 MT (2.45) and 0.5 MT + 3 SD (2.08) showed greater defoliation than 1 MT + 4 SD (1.05) and 1 MT + 3 SD (1.60). At this date, the highest efficiencies were achieved with 1 MT + 4 SD (82.4%) and 1 MT + 3 SD (73.2%), while 1 MT showed the lowest efficiency (53.1%).

In the evaluations of the fourth application, the trend of significantly greater defoliation in CTRL was maintained before application (5.35) and at 3 days (3.90) and 6 days (5.25) after application. In the three evaluations referring to the fourth application, the 1 MT, 0.5 MT, and 0.5 MT + 3 SD treatments showed a greater tendency for defoliation (1.88 to 3.23) than the 1 MT + 3 SD and 1 MT + 4 SD treatments (0.90 to 1.50). The efficacies three days after the fourth application were higher for 1 MT + 4 SD (70.50%) and 1 MT + 3 SD (64.70%), and lower for 0.5 MT (41.0%) and 1 MT (42.3%). Six days after the fourth application, the efficacies of 1MT+4SD (82.9%) and 1 MT + 3 SD (80.90%) were higher than those observed three days after application, while 1 MT and 0.5 MT also improved, with similar efficacies. In evaluations of the four applications, the 1 MT + 4 SD treatment consistently outperforms the other treatments, with 1 MT + 3 SD performing similarly. On the other hand, there is no consistent trend of superiority of the 1 MT treatment over the 0.5 MT treatment.

3.4. Number of fall armyworm caterpillars

Although the significant effect of the treatments was only observed for the number of caterpillars smaller than 2.0 cm (Table 7), there is a clear indication that CTRL presented a greater number of caterpillars, both smaller than 2.0 cm (10) and larger than or equal to 2.0 cm (5). In addition to CTRL, the trend of a greater number of caterpillars of both sizes was observed for the 0.5 MT (4 caterpillars and 3 caterpillars) and 0.5 MT + 3 SD (3 caterpillars of each size) treatments. This indicates the lower efficacy of these treatments.

Table 7
Assessments of live caterpillar incidence in the whorl of 20 plants and control efficacy 10 days after the third treatment application.

Experimental Treatments	Dosage (L ha-1)	Caterpillars < 2 cm		Caterpillars ≥ 2 cm NS
		Number	E (%)	Number	E (%)
Control	-	10.0 a	-	5.0	-
Methomyl	1.0	2.0 b	80.0	2.0	60.0
Methomyl + SDf	1.0 + 3.0	2.0 b	80.0	1.5	70.0
Methomyl + SDf	1.0 + 4.0	1.5 b	85.0	1.0	80.0
Methomyl	0.5	4.0 b	60.0	3.0	40.0
Methomyl + SDf	0.5 + 3.0	3.0 b	70.0	3.0	40.0
CV (%)	-	43.67	-	39.22	-
Means	-	3.75	-	2.58	-

• The data were transformed using √𝑥+1; SDf = SDfender; E (%) = product efficacy; means followed by the same letter do not differ from each other by the Scott-Knott test (p < 0.05); CV = coefficient of variation.
• NS = non-significant by the Scott-Knott test (p < 0.05).

3.5. 1000-grain weight and corn productivity

Although the effects of the treatments on thousand-seed weight (TGW) and corn productivity were not statistically significant, consistent numerical differences in productivity were observed between treatments (Table 8). An interesting result is that the TGW of CTRL is numerically higher than that of the other treatments, which ​​are similar to each other. Regarding productivity, the performance of the 1 MT + 4 SD and 1 MT + 3 SD treatments is similar (around 8400 kg ha-1) and clearly superior to the other treatments. This superiority is evidenced by an increase in productivity of around 15% compared to the control, while the 0.5 MT + 3 SD treatment showed a much smaller increase (8.8%), and the methomyl-alone treatments showed increases slightly greater than 3%.

Table 8
Productivity assessments in bags per hectare and thousand-seed weight as a function of treatments for fall armyworm control in maize cultivation.

Experimental treatments	Dosage (L ha-1)	1,000-GWNS (g)	Productivity NS (kg ha-1)	PI (%)
					Control	-	390.13	7,290	-
Metomil	1.0	372.84	7,530	3.3
Methomyl + SDf	1.0 + 3.0	376.24	8,406	15.3
Methomiyl + SDf	1.0 + 4.0	374.36	8,418	15.5
Methomyl	0.5	363.34	7,608	4.4
Methomyl + SDf	0.5 + 3.0	367.92	7,932	8.8
CV (%)	-	4.84	16.46	-
Means	-	374.14	7,864	-

• SD: SDfender; 100-GW = 1,000-grain weight; CV = coefficient of variation; PI (%) = increase in productivity provided by the treatments compared to the control.
• NS = non-significant by the Scott-Knott test (p < 0.05).

4. Discussion

4.1. Wood vinegar recovery facility – Process yields

The results presented in Table 3 indicate the operational stability of the global process, which is similar to that observed commonly in Brazil in the same type of industrial facilities (Pimenta et al., 2023).

4.2. WV properties, absence of contaminants, and chemical profile analyses

As annotated in Table 5, WV is composed of the same compounds usually identified in several types of WV derived from hardwood species. However, it is well known that, despite compositional similarity, the abundance of each component can vary with woody biomass, pyrolysis parameters, and even the type of kiln used for carbonization (Medeiros et al., 2019; Pimenta et al., 2023; Gama et al., 2024). Also, the composition of the commercial product SDfender is similar to that of WVs cited in the literature for agricultural uses and as liquid smokes in the food industry to impart the smoke flavor in foods (Montazeri et al., 2013; Campos, 2017; Grewal et al., 2018; Pimenta et al., 2018; Pimenta et al., 2023). Regarding contaminants, none of those abovementioned were detected in the SDfender chemical composition, indicating that any observed effect, whether positive or negative, from the product was entirely due to its composition

In addition to the widely variable quality, another crucial issue hindering the spread of WV as an agricultural input, or even for blending with conventional products, is the inability to use the mixtures on large-scale plantations. Commonly worldwide and in several places in Brazil, WV production is carried out by small farmers who are unable to supply the market with the large quantities required by agribusiness, unlike conventional products sold by big companies. Therefore, to produce WV to compete in this market, it is not only necessary to meet a standard and constant supply, but also to provide WV in large amounts as required by the market. In the case of Brazil, it is feasible because it is the world's largest charcoal producer, producing roughly 6.4 million tons in 2024 (IBGE, 2025). Around 95% of this charcoal is consumed in the metallurgical industry to produce 86% of the whole Brazilian pig iron, 40% of the steel, 100% of the silicon, and 100% of the iron alloys, which are produced using charcoal as a thermal or reducing agent (SINDIFER, 2025). Another vital feature is that over 95% of the charcoal used by the metallurgical industry comes from clonal eucalyptus forests, in which all the trees are genetically identical. This characteristic means that only companies producing large amounts of charcoal (or biochar) can effectively supply WV to the agricultural market.

In general, after reviewing an extensive number of published studies, we can say that there is often a lack of information about the exact conditions under which the WV was produced, as well as its chemical composition. Mainly, only the WV effect on this or that culture is presented. This information gap is troublesome because it makes it harder to establish solid comparisons among field results from agricultural applications across different climate and soil conditions, and to relate them to their respective WV compositions and properties. In Brazil and worldwide, there are usually no legal regulations regarding the quality of WV. Farmers who manufacture WV typically rely on informal rules of thumb to determine final quality and use the product in their crops (Daroit et al., 2013; Campos, 2017). Another concerning issue is that sometimes ineffective products coexist with effective ones in the same market. Yet all are sold freely regardless of their quality.

The properties (Table 4) and chemical composition of the organic fraction (Table 5) were established in this work, allowing other researchers to reproduce our results through field experimentation with different types of firewood under similar operational conditions. Several other authors, researching the chemical profile of WV from hardwoods (Theapparat et al., 2015; Li et al., 2017; Souza et al., 2018, for example), have found similar results. The organic fraction from eucalyptus WV (Table 5) was composed of organic acids, furans, pyrans, phenolic compounds, and other minor components, which was expected. However, as noted by Pimenta et al. (2023) and Gama et al. (2024), although the main components of eucalyptus WV are the same, their relative proportions can vary widely depending on kiln type, pyrolysis parameters, and other factors. In the case of the SDfender, since the same type of eucalyptus firewood (clone I144 – Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis) is used for carbonization, the manufacturer maintains consistent WV quality.

The most significant compounds in the SDfender (Table 5) were 3-methyl-cyclopentanone (2.36%), 2-cyclopenten-1-one (2.93%), 5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde (4.89%), furfural (8.92%), 2-acetylfuran (3.90%), furan-2-carbaldehyde (2.19%), 2-methoxy-phenol – guaiacol (14.35%), 4-methyl-2-methoxy-phenol – creosol (5.98%), phenol (9.34%), and 2,6-dimethoxy-phenol – syringol (8.30%). Those, among other compounds present in the WV composition, are cited as having biological activity in the original state or as derivatives, acting as antibacterials, antivirals, and antifungals (Tonari and Sameshima, 2000; Horváth et al., 2003; Mierau et al., 2004; Chai et al., 2013; Walsh et al., 2019). Indeed, only manufacturing standardization across all phases of WV production can yield a product that can be recommended at precise dosages, as conventional agricultural pesticides and bio-inputs have well-defined chemical or biological compositions. The SDfender used here successfully meets this demand for consistent quality because the same company controls the entire production cycle—from wood harvesting through carbonization in standard kilns, a high-yield WV recovery unit, and refining—thereby standardizing production from the raw material to the final product.

4.3. Corn crop defoliation

The safety of the SDfender application in terms of phytotoxicity at the doses used was verified 7 days after each application, as none of the evaluated treatments (data not shown) exhibited symptoms that compromised the growth and development of the corn plants. Before the first application, defoliation of the plants across all treatments, as measured by the Davis scale, was relatively low, and the treatment averages were very close to each other. This indicates that the S. frugiperda infestation was homogeneous across the experimental area and ensures that the differences observed in subsequent evaluations were attributable to the adopted management practices, without bias from the initial distribution of the pest (Davis and Williams, 1994).

Following this initial assessment, all evaluations demonstrated the positive effect of the methomyl and SDfender treatments, which showed significantly less defoliation than in CTRL. The greater defoliation in CTRL in the evaluations before the second, third, and fourth applications indicates a residual effect of the previously applied products. This residual effect is more evident in the 1 MT + 3 SD and 1 MT + 4 SD treatments, where defoliation was significantly lower than 0.5 MT and 0.5 MT + 3 SD before the second and third applications, and 1 MT before the third application. In this regard, Fernandes et al. (2019) emphasize the importance of using more than one product or active ingredient to obtain greater treatment efficacy, so that one exerts a shock effect and the other exerts a longer-term effect.

The superior performance of the 1 MT + 4 SD and 1 MT + 3 SD treatments, with a numerical advantage for the former, is demonstrated by lower defoliation and, consequently, greater effectiveness in reducing defoliation across all evaluations conducted after each application. However, the differences were not significant in some evaluations. In general, the effectiveness of these treatments exceeded 70% and reached 80-85% in some evaluations. Therefore, the most economical option would be to use 1 MT + 3 SD, without compromising pest control. According to Fernandes et al. (2019), government agencies that regulate the release of chemical and biological pest control products require that insecticides registered in Brazil demonstrate at least 80% effectiveness against the target species.

The 1 MT and 0.5 MT + 3 SD treatments showed efficacy around 70% after the first and second applications, but showed much lower efficacy in other evaluations. In general, except for CTRL, the greatest defoliation after applications was observed in 1 MT, 0.5 MT, and 0.5 MT + 3 SD, with 0.5 MT showing the lowest efficacy in reducing defoliation in all evaluations. The number of caterpillars of both sizes, 10 days after the third application, was clearly higher in CTRL. This indicates the positive effect of the treatments combining methomyl and SDefender. However, this effect was significant only for caterpillars smaller than 2.0 cm, which, being in the early stages of development, receive more insecticide on their integument through direct contact. This insecticide penetrates more easily through the cuticle, trachea, pores, and hairs connected to the nervous system, acting on their metabolism and causing faster death than in more developed caterpillars (Fernandes et al., 2019).

In addition to CTRL, the highest numbers of caterpillars of both sizes were observed in the 0.5 MT and 0.5 MT + SD treatments, corroborating the low efficacy of these treatments. The 1 MT + 4 SD treatment, which was numerically superior, along with 1 MT + 3 SD and 1 MT, showed efficacy above 80% in controlling caterpillars smaller than 2.0 cm. In larger caterpillars, only 1 MT + 4 SD showed comparable efficacy. In this regard, Fernandes et al. (2019) emphasize that newly hatched caterpillars are more easily killed by insecticides, whose efficacy decreases when applied to caterpillars in a more advanced stage of development. This was demonstrated by applying the insecticide when most corn caterpillars (S. frugiperda) were in the 2^nd instar, resulting in 88% efficacy. According to the authors, control should focus on caterpillars in the early stages, both to facilitate control and to reduce crop damage.

The increased control of caterpillars when SDfender was added to methomyl may be due to its action as an adjuvant, or to the increased bioavailability of the active ingredient, or to the potentiation of the synthetic insecticide's effect (Liu et al., 2021), since compounds present in the WV, such as organic acids, phenols, and aldehydes, can act by increasing the permeability of the insect cuticle and facilitating the penetration of the active ingredient or even interacting with enzymes related to chitin degradation (Regnault-Roger et al., 2012; Pimenta et al., 2018; Yoon and Tak, 2023; Pereira et al., 2024). In a study by Kim et al. (2008), the acetic acid content of the WV influenced the permeability of the cuticular layer in rice leafhoppers, thereby increasing carbosulfan penetration and intensifying its action.

WV is a natural product with real potential as an adjuvant in pesticide applications (Tiilikkala et al., 2010; Santos et al., 2024), as it can enhance the effectiveness of chemical pesticides when used in combination. The growing interest in wood vinegar as an adjuvant aligns with international initiatives to reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides and promote more sustainable crop protection strategies. Studies conducted in Brazil and in Asian and European countries have highlighted the potential of wood vinegar and other biomasses to improve pesticide performance, reduce application rates, and contribute to integrated pest management programs with less environmental impact (Petter et al., 2013; Tiilikkala et al. 2010; Aguirre et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2024; Leifeld and Walz, 2025). Among the factors that contribute to WV increasing the effectiveness of pesticides associated with it are its acidity and the presence of organic compounds, which can improve the adhesion of the products to the leaf surface (Santos et al., 2024). The addition of adjuvants to the spray mixture improves application performance and pesticide effectiveness compared with application alone. This occurs through increased biological efficiency and modification of specific physicochemical properties of the solution. Some consequences of using these products are decreased drift, increased droplet penetration into foliage, improved wetting, spreading, adhesion, and coverage of the leaf surface, increased absorption and penetration speed of the active ingredient, greater protection of the active ingredient, and a decrease in its degradation rate (Melo, 2012; Melo et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2021).

The lower effectiveness of insect treatments in later instars may be related to the emergence of resistance in the population, which can degrade the enzymes in the active ingredients of carbamate-class insecticides, thereby detoxifying them (Hilliou et al., 2021; Khan and Ali, 2025). Another factor that may have influenced this is the fact that the insect's covering tissues, especially the cuticle, become less permeable in later instars, for example, due to increased thickness or changes in composition (Balabanidou et al., 2018). These results suggest a personalized management approach for each insect instar. Compared with 1.0 L ha-1 and 0.5 L ha-1 of methomyl, the higher dose showed a less consistent trend toward lower defoliation and, therefore, greater effectiveness in controlling it. Still, it showed clear superiority in controlling caterpillars, as expected. Isolated methomyl at a dose of 0.5 L.ha⁻¹ showed the lowest efficiency among all treatments.

Although the effects of the treatments on productivity and MMS were not statistically significant, consistent numerical differences in productivity were observed. In this regard, the performance of the 1 MT + 4 SD and 1 MT + 3 SD treatments was similar (8,400 kg ha^-1) and clearly superior to the other treatments. This superiority is evidenced by a 15% increase in productivity compared to the control. In comparison, the 0.5MT+3SD treatment showed a much smaller increase (8.8%), and the treatments that used only methomyl showed increases slightly greater than 3%. These results were expected, since more efficient caterpillar control, reflected in lower defoliation levels, directly contributes to the preservation of the photosynthetically active area of ​​the plants and, consequently, to greater productivity (Viecelli et al., 2011). Maintaining plant integrity promotes higher carbon assimilation rates, better energy balance, and more efficient allocation of photoassimilates to reproductive organs, resulting in greater grain filling and increased productivity (Liang et al., 2023). Furthermore, reducing damage from insect pests is associated with maintaining plant physiological vigor and optimizing crop productivity, thereby increasing grain yield (Viecelli et al., 2011; Tashiro et al., 2024).

It is interesting to note that the 1,000-GW (1,000-grain weight) for CTRL was higher than for the other treatments, whose values were similar to each other. It is expected that defoliation by caterpillars would decrease the thousand-seed weight; however, the damage caused indirectly reduces productivity by reducing ear length and the number of grains per ear, in addition to causing ear drop, but may not significantly affect grain mass. Furthermore, a large reduction in the number of grains per hectare results in the remaining grains receiving more nutrients and increasing in individual weight, while productivity per area decreases. Another aspect is that when most of the photosynthetic area is removed, the amount of assimilates transferred from the stem to the grain increases (Buntin, 1986; Barimavandi et al., 2010). Thus, the results indicate that the association between methomyl and SDfender represents a promising strategy within the principles of integrated pest management, reconciling efficient control of corn defoliation with greater environmental sustainability.

5. Conclusions

The application of 1.0 L ha⁻¹ of the insecticide methomyl combined with 3.0 or 4.0 L ha⁻¹ of commercial wood vinegar (SDfender) proved to be an excellent strategy for controlling the Fall Armyworm in corn crops, as it promoted lower defoliation rates and provided a good response in controlling caterpillars, in addition to promoting the greatest productivity increases (around 15%), consistently surpassing the isolated use of the standard market insecticide methomyl. Therefore, the combined use of the two products is recommended, with a dose of 3.0 L ha⁻¹ of SDfender, for reasons of efficacy and economy, and 1.0 L ha⁻¹ of methomyl, which proved more effective than 0.5 L ha⁻¹. Further studies should be conducted on other pest types and crops to assess the effectiveness of the WV when combined with conventional insecticides.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Santos & Dias Group for funding this research project. We also thank CAPES (Brazilian Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel) and CNPq (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development) for scholarships for students and for supporting Dr. Medeiros, Dr. Melo, Dr. Miranda, and Dr. Pimenta.

Data Availability Statement

Research data is only available upon request.

References

• ABAS, F.Z., ZAKARIA, Z.A. and ANI, F.N., 2018. Antimicrobial properties of optimized microwave-assisted pyroligneous acid from oil Palm fiber. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 65-71. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2018.8711
  » https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2018.8711
• ABBOTT, W.S., 1925. A method of computing the effectiveness of an insecticide. Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 265-267. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/18.2.265a
  » https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/18.2.265a
• ACHMADI, S.S., MUBARIK, N.R., NURSYAMSI, R. and SEPTIAJI, P., 2013. Characterization of redistilled liquid smoke of oil-palm shells and its application as fish preservatives. Journal of Applied Sciences, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 401-408. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2013.401.408
  » https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2013.401.408
• AGUIRRE, J.L., BAENA, J., MARTÍN, M.T., NOZAL, L., GONZÁLEZ, S., MANJÓN, J.L. and PEINADO, M., 2020. Composition, ageing and herbicidal properties of wood vinegar obtained through fast biomass pyrolysis. Energies, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 2418. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13102418
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/en13102418
• AHMED, K.S., IDREES, A., MAJEED, M.Z., MAJEED, M.I., SHEHZAD, M.Z., ULLAH, M.I., AFZAL, A. and LI, J., 2022. Synergized toxicity of promising plant extracts and synthetic chemicals against fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Pakistan. Agronomy, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 1289. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061289
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061289
• ALBUQUERQUE, F.B., MELO, R.R., PIMENTA, A.S., PAULA, E.A.O., SCATOLINO, M.V. and RUSCH, F., 2023. Mini-kilns for charcoal-making: an eco-friendly solution for small-scale production of charcoal and wood vinegar. Inventions, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 146. https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions8060146
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions8060146
• AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION – APHA. American Water Works Association. Water Environment Federation, 2023. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater 24th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.
• AOAC. (2019). Method 2007.01 – Residues in foods by acetonitrile extraction and partitioning with magnesium sulfate Annapolis, MD: AOAC International.
• BAKRY, M.M.S. and ABDEL-BAKY, N.F., 2024. Impact of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) infestation on maize growth characteristics and yield loss. Brazilian Journal of Biology, vol. 84, pp. e274602. https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.274602
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.274602
• BALABANIDOU, V., GRIGORAKI, L. and VONTAS, J., 2018. Insect cuticle: a critical determinant of insecticide resistance. Current Opinion in Insect Science, vol. 27, pp. 68-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2018.03.001 PMid:30025637.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2018.03.001
• BARIMAVANDI, A.R., SEDAGHATHOOR, S. and ANSARI, R., 2010. Effect of Different Defoliation Treatments on Yield and Yield Components in maize (Zea mays L.) Cultivar of S.C704. Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 9-15.
• BASSO, C., SIQUEIRA, A.C.F. and RICHARDS, N.S.P.S., 2021. Impacts on human health and environment related to the use of pesticides: an integrative review. Research. Social Development, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. e43110817529. https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i8.17529
  » https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i8.17529
• BRASIL. Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Supply – MAPA, 2024 [viewed 4 December 2025]. Brazilian corn exports[online]. Available from: https://share.google/mBtDfi1v3Oss7SW0Q
  » https://share.google/mBtDfi1v3Oss7SW0Q
• BRAZILIAN INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS – IBGE, 2025 [viewed 16 December 2025]. PAM: Municipal Agricultural Production[online]. Available from: https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas/economicas/agricultura-e-pecuaria/9117-producao-agricola-municipal-culturas-temporarias-e-permanentes.html
  » https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas/economicas/agricultura-e-pecuaria/9117-producao-agricola-municipal-culturas-temporarias-e-permanentes.html
• BUNTIN, G.D., 1986. A review of plant response to fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), injury in selected field and forage crops. The Florida Entomologist, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 549-559. https://doi.org/10.2307/3495389
  » https://doi.org/10.2307/3495389
• CAMPOS, A.D., 2017 [viewed 10 December 2025]. Technical information on wood vinegar[online]. Pelotas, RS, Brazil: Embrapa, 9 p. Technical Report, no. 177. Available from: https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/178670/1/Circular-177-final.pdf
  » https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/178670/1/Circular-177-final.pdf
• CHAI, W.M., LIU, X., HU, Y.H., FENG, H.L., JIA, Y.L., GUO, Y.J., ZHOU, H.T. and CHEN, Q.X., 2013. Antityrosinase and antimicrobial activities of furfuryl alcohol, furfural, and furoic acid. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 57, pp. 151-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.02.019 PMid:23466497.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.02.019
• DAROIT, D., MOURA, A.B.D. and MARTINS, I.P.D., 2013. Vegetable charcoal and pyroligneous acid: technological, economical and legal aspects of its production and commerce. Journal of Technology Management & Innovation, vol. 8, pp. 310-320. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-27242013000300028
  » https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-27242013000300028
• DASSANAYAKE, M.K., CHONG, C.H., KHOO, T.-J., FIGIEL, A., SZUMNY, A. and CHOO, C.M., 2021. Synergistic field crop pest management properties of plant-derived essential oils in combination with synthetic pesticides and bioactive molecules: a review. Foods, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 2016. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10092016 PMid:34574123.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10092016
• DAVIS, F.M. and WILLIAMS, W.P., 1994. Evaluation of reproductive stage maize for resistance to the southwestern corn borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) using visual rating scores of leaf sheath and husk damage. Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 87, no. 4, pp. 1105-1112. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/87.4.1105
  » https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/87.4.1105
• DUARTE, J.O., MATTOSO, M.J. and GARCIA, J.C., 2021 [viewed 10 December 2025]. Corn: socioeconomic importance [online]. Sete Lagoas: Embrapa Milho e Sorgo. Available from: https://www.embrapa.br/agencia-de-informacao-tecnologica/cultivos/milho/pre-producao/socioeconomia/importancia-socioeconomica
  » https://www.embrapa.br/agencia-de-informacao-tecnologica/cultivos/milho/pre-producao/socioeconomia/importancia-socioeconomica
• FERNANDES, F.O., ABREU, J.A., CHRIST, L.M. and ROSA, A.P.S.A., 2019. Efficacy of insecticides against Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797). Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 494. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v11n1p494
  » https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v11n1p494
• FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS – FAO, 2024a. World Food and Agriculture - Statistical Yearbook 2024 Rome: FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2971en
  » https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2971en
• FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS – FAO, 2024b [viewed 4 February 2026]. Statistical Yearbook 2024[online]. Rome: FAO. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d784864f-7f28-49d2-903e-6680d09a9d97/content/cd2971en.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com#chapter-copyright
  » https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d784864f-7f28-49d2-903e-6680d09a9d97/content/cd2971en.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com#chapter-copyright
• FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS – FAO, 2024c [viewed 10 December 2025]. Agricultural production statistics 2010–2023[online]. Rome: FAO. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/ab36b259-d641-4ded-8832-32f579685be7
  » https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/ab36b259-d641-4ded-8832-32f579685be7
• FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION – FDA, 2010. Elemental Analysis Manual. USA. Section 4.4. Inductively coupled plasma – Atomic emission spectrometric determination of elements in food using microwave-assisted digestion Silver Spring, MD: FDA.
• GAMA, G.S.P., PIMENTA, A.S., FEIJÓ, F.M.C., AZEVEDO, T.K.B., MELO, R.R. and ANDRADE, G.S., 2024. The potential of wood vinegar to replace antimicrobials used in animal husbandry – a review. Animals, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 381. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14030381 PMid:38338024.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14030381
• GREWAL, A., ABBEY, L. and GUNUPURU, L.R., 2018. Production, prospects, and potential application of pyroligneous acid in agriculture. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 135, no. 18, pp. 152-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2018.09.008
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2018.09.008
• GUERREIRO, J.C., BENTO, F.S. and SILVESTRE, C., 2012. Effect of incorporating pyroligneous extract into substrate on the initial development of tomato seedlings. Periódico Eletrônico Fórum Ambiental da Alta Paulista, vol. 8, pp. 1.
• GUIMARÃES, L.J.M., 2024 [viewed 5 November 2026]. The importance of corn for Brazilian agribusiness[online]. Brasília: Embrapa. Available from: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-noticias/-/noticia/89583335/artigo-dia-nacional-do-milho---a-importancia-do-milho-para-o-agronegocio-brasileiro
  » https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-noticias/-/noticia/89583335/artigo-dia-nacional-do-milho---a-importancia-do-milho-para-o-agronegocio-brasileiro
• HIGASHINO, T., SHIBATA, A. and YATAGAI, M., 2005. Basic study for establishing specifications for wood vinegar by distillation. Mokuzai Gakkai Shi, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 180-188. https://doi.org/10.2488/jwrs.51.180
  » https://doi.org/10.2488/jwrs.51.180
• HILLIOU, F., CHERTEMPS, T., MAÏBÈCHE, M. and LE GOFF, G., 2021. Resistance in the genus Spodoptera: key insect detoxification genes. Insects, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 544. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12060544 PMid:34208014.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12060544
• HORVÁTH, I.S., FRANZÉN, C.J., TAHERZADEH, M.J., NIKLASSON, C. and LIDÉN, G., 2003. Effects of furfural on the respiratory metabolism of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in glucose-limited chemostats. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 69, no. 7, pp. 4076-4086. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.7.4076-4086.2003 PMid:12839784.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.7.4076-4086.2003
• INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH – IPT, 2020. Determination of semi-volatile and volatile organic compounds by gas chromatography (GC) or gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) (Procedure IPT4596 – Revision 13) São Paulo, SP: IPT.
• IRON INDUSTRY UNION IN THE STATE OF MINAS GERAIS – SINDIFER, 2025 [viewed 6 November 2025]. Statistical Yearbook, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil [online]. Belo Horizonte: SINDIFER, 52 p. Available from: https://sindifer.com.br/sndfr/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Anuario-Yearbook-2025 SINDIFER_-.pdf
  » https://sindifer.com.br/sndfr/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Anuario-Yearbook-2025
• KHAN, H.A.A. and ALI, A., 2025. First report of field-evolved resistance to insecticides in Spodoptera frugiperda(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from Punjab, Pakistan. PLoS One, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. e0324857. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324857 PMid:40493618.
  » https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324857
• KIM, D.H., SEO, H.E., LEE, S.C. and LEE, K.Y., 2008. Effects of wood vinegar mixed with insecticides on the mortalities of Nilaparvata lugens and Laodelphax striatellus (Homoptera: delphacidae). Animal Cells and Systems, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 47-52. https://doi.org/10.1080/19768354.2008.9647153
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/19768354.2008.9647153
• KUMAR, V., YASMEEN, N., PANDEY, A., CHAUDHARY, A.A., ALAWAM, A.S., RUDAYNI, H.A., ISLAM, A., LAKHAWAT, S.S., SHARMA, P.K. and SHAHID, M., 2023. Antibiotic adjuvants: a synergistic tool to combat multidrug-resistant pathogens. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, vol. 13, pp. 1293633. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1293633 PMid:38179424.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1293633
• LEIFELD, J. and WALZ, I., 2025. Pyroligneous acid effects on crop yield and soil organic matter in agriculture: A review. Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 927. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040927
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040927
• LI, R., NARITA, R., NISHIMURA, H., MARUMOTO, S., YAMAMOTO, S.P., OUDA, R., YATAGAI, M., FUJITA, T. and WATANABE, T., 2017. Antiviral activity of phenolic derivatives in pyroligneous acid from hardwood, softwood, and bamboo. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 119-126. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b01265
  » https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b01265
• LIANG, X.-G., GAO, Z., FU, X.-X., CHEN, X.-M., SHEN, S. and ZHOU, S.-L., 2023. Coordination of carbon assimilation, allocation, and utilization for systemic improvement of cereal yield. Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 14, pp. 1206829. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1206829 PMid:37731984.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1206829
• LIMA, L.J.S., PIMENTA, A.S., MIRANDA, N.O., MEDEIROS, P.S., GAMA, G.S.P., SANTOS, R.T., MASCOTE, G.M., AZEVEDO, T.K.B., MELO, R.R. and ANDRADE, G.S., 2026. Combining insecticides and bioinputs with eucalyptus wood vinegar: effects on the soybean crop. Advances in Agriculture, vol. 2026, no. 1, pp. 6249170. https://doi.org/10.1155/aia/6249170
  » https://doi.org/10.1155/aia/6249170
• LIU, X., ZHAN, Y., LI, X., LI, Y., FENG, X., BAGAVATHIANNAN, M., ZHANG, C., QU, M. and YU, J., 2021. The use of wood vinegar as a non-synthetic herbicide for control of broadleaf weeds. Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 173, pp. 114105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.114105
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.114105
• LOPES-FERREIRA, M., MALESKI, A.L.A., BALAN-LIMA, L., BERNARDO, J.T.G., HIPOLITO, L.M., SENI-SILVA, A.C., BATISTA-FILHO, J., FALCÃO, M.A.P. and LIMA, C., 2022. Impact of pesticides on human health in the last six years in Brazil. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 3198. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063198 PMid:35328887.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063198
• MALIANG, H., TANG, L., LIN, H., CHEN, A. and MA, J., 2020. Influence of high-dose continuous applications of pyroligneous acids on soil health assessed based on pH, moisture content, and three hydrolases. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, vol. 27, no. 13, pp. 15426-15439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08075-x PMid:32077021.
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08075-x
• MEDEIROS, L.C.D., PIMENTA, A.S., BRAGA, R.M., CARNAVAL, T.K.A., MEDEIROS NETO, P.N. and MELO, D.M.A., 2019. Effect of heating rate on the chemical composition of wood vinegar from Eucalyptus urograndis and Mimosa tenuiflora. Revista Árvore, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. e430408. https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-90882019000400008
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-90882019000400008
• MELO, A.A., 2012. Effect of adjuvants associated with insecticides in the control of caterpillars and stink bugs in soybeans Santa Maria, RS: Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 60 p. Master's dissertation.
• MELO, A.A., HUNSCHE, M., GUEDES, J.V.C., HAHN, L. and FELTRIN, N.M., 2019. Study of the effects of adjuvants associated with insecticides on the physicochemical properties of the spray solution and characterization of deposits on wheat and maize leaves under simulated rain. Engenharia Agrícola, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 315-322. https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4430-eng.agric.v39n3p315-322/2019
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4430-eng.agric.v39n3p315-322/2019
• MIERAU, V., STERNER, O. and ANKE, T., 2004. Two new biologically active cyclopentenones from Dasyscyphus sp. A47-98. The Journal of Antibiotics, vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 311-315. https://doi.org/10.7164/antibiotics.57.311 PMid:15303491.
  » https://doi.org/10.7164/antibiotics.57.311
• MONTAZERI, N., OLIVEIRA, A.C.M., HIMELBLOOM, B.H., LEIGH, M.B. and CRAPO, C.A., 2013. Chemical characterization of commercial liquid smoke products. Food Science & Nutrition, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 102-115. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.9 PMid:24804019.
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.9
• NGEGBA, P.M., KHALID, M.Z., JIANG, W. and ZHONG, G., 2025. An overview of insecticide resistance mechanisms, challenges, and management strategies in Spodoptera frugiperda. Crop Protection (Guildford, Surrey), vol. 197, pp. 107322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2025.107322
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2025.107322
• OLIVEIRA, I.R., MENDES, S.M., VIANA, P.A., RESENDE, A.V., ALVARENGA, R.C. and BORGHI, E., 2023 [viewed 6 November 2025]. Management of fall armyworm in integrated production systems with brachiaria grass[online]. Available from: https://www.embrapa.br/en/milho-e-sorgo/busca-de-noticias/-/noticia/91415302/study-validates-fall-armyworm-control-strategies-in-integrated-corn-production-systems
  » https://www.embrapa.br/en/milho-e-sorgo/busca-de-noticias/-/noticia/91415302/study-validates-fall-armyworm-control-strategies-in-integrated-corn-production-systems
• PENCKOWSKI, L.H., PODOLAN, M.J. and LÓPEZ-OVEJERO, R.F., 2004. Tolerance of corn treated with insecticides to herbicides from the imidazolinone group. Planta Daninha, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 307-313. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582004000200019
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582004000200019
• PEREIRA, I.S., PORTO, F.G.S., ANTUNES, L.E.C. and CAMPOS, A.D., 2022. Phytoprotective film for resistance induction, growth, and yield of organic strawberries. Advances in Horticultural Science, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 43-52. https://doi.org/10.36253/ahsc-10449
  » https://doi.org/10.36253/ahsc-10449
• PEREIRA, V., FIGUEIRA, O. and CASTILHO, P.C., 2024. Flavonoids as Insecticides in Crop Protection: A Review of Current Research and Future Prospects. Plants, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 776. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13060776 PMid:38592833.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13060776
• PETTER, F.A., SILVA, L.B., SOUZA, I.J., MAGIONNI, K., PACHECO, L.P., ALMEIDA, F.A. and PAVAN, B.E., 2013. Adaptation of the use of pyroligneous acid in control of caterpillars and agronomic performance of the soybean crop. Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 5, no. 8. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v5n8p27
  » https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v5n8p27
• PIMENTA, A.S., FASCIOTTI, M., MONTEIRO, T.V.C. and LIMA, K.M.G., 2018. Chemical composition of pyroligneous acid obtained from Eucalyptus GG100 Clone. Molecules, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 426. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23020426 PMid:29462854.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23020426
• PIMENTA, A.S., GAMA, G.S.P., FEIJÓ, F.M.C., BRAGA, R.M., AZEVEDO, T.K.B., MELO, R.R., MIRANDA, N.O. and ANDRADE, G.S., 2023. Wood vinegar from slow pyrolysis of Eucalyptus wood: assessment of removing contaminants by sequential vacuum distillation. Forests, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 2414. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14122414
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/f14122414
• RAHMAT, B., KURNIATI, F. and HARTINI, E., 2015. Mahogany wood-waste vinegar larvicide for Spodoptera litura. BioResources, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 6741-6750. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.4.6741-6750
  » https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.4.6741-6750
• REGNAULT-ROGER, C., VINCENT, C. and ARNASON, J.T., 2012. Essential oils in insect control: low-risk products in a high-stakes world. Annual Review of Entomology, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 405-424. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100554 PMid:21942843.
  » https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100554
• RITCHIE, S.W., HANWAY, J.J., BENSON, G.O. and HERMAN, J.C., 1993. How a corn plant develops Ames: Iowa State University. Special Report, no. 48.
• SANODIYA, P., TIWARI, P. and GUPTA, C., 2023. Maize (Zea mays L.) - The future potential cereal crop of an indispensable significance in agro-forestry systems. Maize Journal, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 61-71.
• SANTOS, L.L.C., SOUZA, R.C., SOUSA JUNIOR, B.S., SOUZA, R.S., FARIAS, A.R.O., SILVA JR, A.B.C., BULHÕES, L.E.L. and ARAÚJO NETO, V.F., 2024. Efficiency of reduced rates of 2,4-D in mixture with wood vinegar in weed control. Caderno Pedagógico, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. e5093. https://doi.org/10.54033/cadpedv21n6-203
  » https://doi.org/10.54033/cadpedv21n6-203
• SARI, S.P., SULIANSYAH, I., NELLY, N., HAMID, H. and DWIPA, I., 2023. Corn pests and evaluation of the implementation of integrated pest management in West Sumatra, Indonesia. International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 91-96. https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.13.1.16988
  » https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.13.1.16988
• SHETTY, G.P., MEGHANA, A., SHETTY, M.G., BALAKRISHNA, S.M. and NIRANJAN, H.G., 2025. Wood Vinegar: A promising agricultural input: A review. International Journal of Agriculture Extension and Social Development, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 576-582. https://doi.org/10.33545/26180723.2025.v8.i5h.1962
  » https://doi.org/10.33545/26180723.2025.v8.i5h.1962
• SIVARAM, A.K., PANNEERSELVAN, L., MUKUNTHAN, K. and MEGHARAJ, M., 2022. Effect of pyroligneous acid on the microbial community composition and plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) in soils. Soil Systems, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6010010
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6010010
• SOUZA, J.L.S., GUIMARÃES, V.B.S., CAMPOS, A.D. and LUND, R.G., 2018. Antimicrobial potential of pyroligneous extracts – a systematic review and technological prospecting. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology : Publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 128-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjm.2018.07.001 PMid:28887007.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjm.2018.07.001
• TASHIRO, K., ISHITANI, M., MURAI, S., NIIMI, M., TOBISA, M., IDOTA, S., ADACHI-HAGIMORI, T. and ISHII, Y., 2024. Effect of defoliation on growth, yield and forage quality in maize, as a simulation of the impact of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda). AgriEngineering, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 1847-1858. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6020107
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6020107
• THEAPPARAT, Y., CHANDUMPAI, A., LEELASUPHAKUL, W. and LAEMSAK, N., 2015 [viewed 6 November 2025]. Pyroligneous acids from carbonisation of wood and bamboo: their components and antifungal activity. Journal of Tropical Forest Science [online], vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 517-526. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43596228
  » https://www.jstor.org/stable/43596228
• TIILIKKALA, K., FAGERNAS, L. and TIILIKKALA, J., 2010. History and use of wood pyrolysis liquids as biocide and plant protection product. The Open Agriculture Journal, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 111-118. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331501004010111
  » https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331501004010111
• TOGORO, A.H., SILVA, J.A.S. and CAZETTA, J.O., 2014. Chemical changes in an oxisol treated with pyroligneous acid. Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 113-121. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-70542014000200002
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-70542014000200002
• TOLEDO, T.L., MADALÓZ, J.C.C. and RIBEIRO, L.P., 2021. Subsidies for managing stink bugs in the early stages of corn cultivation. Agropecuária Catarinense, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 20-23.
• TONARI, K. and SAMESHIMA, K., 2000. Antibacterial activity of 3-methylciclopentanone derivatives in relation to methylenomics. Journal of Japan Oil Chemists’. Society, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 583-590, 642. https://doi.org/10.5650/jos1996.49.583
  » https://doi.org/10.5650/jos1996.49.583
• VIANA, P.A., CRUZ, I. and WAQUIL, J.M., 2002 [viewed 1 February 2026]. Corn cultivation: early pests [online]. Sete Lagoas: Embrapa Corn and Sorghum, 13 p. Technical Report, no. 59. Available from: https://www.infoteca.cnptia.embrapa.br/infoteca/handle/doc/487021
  » https://www.infoteca.cnptia.embrapa.br/infoteca/handle/doc/487021
• VIECELLI, C.A., FILLWOCK, J.M. and SUZIN, V., 2011. Efeito do desfolhamento das plantas na produtividade do milho. Pesquisa Aplicada & Agrotecnologia, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 179-190. https://doi.org/10.5777/PAeT.V4.N3.11
  » https://doi.org/10.5777/PAeT.V4.N3.11
• WALSH, D.J., LIVINGHOUSE, T., GOERES, D.M., METTLER, M. and STEWART, P.S., 2019. Antimicrobial activity of naturally occurring phenols and derivatives against biofilm and planktonic bacteria. Frontiers in Chemistry, vol. 7, pp. 653. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2019.00653 PMid:31632948.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2019.00653
• YOON, J. and TAK, J.H., 2023. Cuticular property affects the insecticidal synergy of major constituents in thyme oil against houseflies, Musca domestica. Scientific Reports, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 12654. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-39898-6 PMid:37542185.
  » https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-39898-6
• ZHANG, R., WEI, D., YAO, Z., CHAO, Z. and XIAOJUAN, A., 2014. Effects of wood vinegar on the soil microbial characteristics. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, vol. 6, pp. 1254-1260.
• ZHOU, H., SHEN, Y., ZHANG, N., LIU, Z., BAO, L. and XIA, Y., 2024. Wood fiber biomass pyrolysis solution as a potential tool for plant disease management: A review. Heliyon, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. e25509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25509 PMid:38333782.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25509

Edited by

• Editor:
  Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  31 Aug 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  30 Mar 2026
• Accepted
  22 June 2026