Learning Motivation, Socioemotional Skills and School Achievement in Elementary School Students

Motivação para Aprender, Competências Socioemocionais e Desempenho Escolar no Ensino Fundamental

Motivación para Aprender, Habilidades Socioemocionales y Desempeño Escolar en Alumnos de Primaria

Abstract

The motivation to learn is an element that drives student behavior and acts as a subjacent solving school demands, as well it influences the development and expression of socioemotional skills and school performance. This research constitutes a systematic review of the literature that investigated the relationship between motivation to learn, socioemotional skills and school performance in children enrolled in elementary school. A total of 9,631 abstracts from the ASSIA, EDUC, ERIC, PsycArticles, Science Direct, SCOPUS and Web of Science databases were examined, ending with 44 studies. The findings indicated a positive relationship between the three constructs, corroborating the literature that illustrates the benefits of various indicators of school and psychological well-being of children and adolescents to enhance learning and school performance. It is noteworthy that student-family and student-teacher interactions can favor student success or failure.

Keywords:
socialization; motivation; academic achievement; literature review

Resumo

A motivação para aprender é um elemento impulsionador do comportamento do aluno, atuando de modo subjacente à resolução de demandas escolares, porquanto exerce influência no desenvolvimento e expressão das competências socioemocionais e desempenho escolar. Este estudo teve como objetivo realizar uma revisão sistemática da literatura sobre a relação entre a motivação para aprender, as competências socioemocionais e o desempenho escolar em crianças matriculadas no ensino fundamental. Foram examinados 9.631 resumos das bases ASSIA, EDUC, ERIC, PsycArticles, Science Direct, SCOPUS e Web of Science, finalizando com 44 estudos. Os achados indicaram uma relação positiva entre os três construtos, corroborando a literatura sobre os benefícios de vários indicadores de bem-estar escolar e psicológico de crianças e adolescentes para potencializar a aprendizagem e o desempenho escolar. Ressalta-se que as interações aluno-família e aluno-professor podem favorecer o sucesso ou insucesso do aluno.

Palavras-chave:
socialização; motivação; rendimento escolar; revisão de literatura

Resumen

La Motivación para Aprender es un elemento impulsor del comportamiento de los estudiantes, actuando como una forma subyacente de resolver las demandas escolares, ya que influye en el desarrollo y expresión de las habilidades socioemocionales y el rendimiento escolar. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo realizar una revisión sistemática de la literatura sobre la relación entre la motivación para aprender, las habilidades socioemocionales y el rendimiento escolar en niños matriculados en la escuela primaria. Se examinaron 9631 resúmenes, de las bases ASSIA, EDUC, ERIC, PsycArticles, Science Direct, SCOPUS y Web of Science, y finalizó con 44 estudios. Los hallazgos indicaron una relación positiva entre los tres constructos, corroborando la literatura sobre los beneficios de diversos indicadores de bienestar escolar y psicológico de niños y adolescentes para potenciar el aprendizaje y rendimiento escolar. Además, las interacciones alumno-familia y alumno-profesor pueden favorecer el éxito o el fracaso de los alumnos.

Palabras-clave:
socialización; motivación; rendimiento escolar; revisión de literatura

In Brazil, the quality of school learning represents one of the main interests of public educational policies. The National Education Guidelines and Framework Law [LDB], as well as the National Curriculum Guidelines for Early Childhood Education [DCNEI], the National Pact for Literacy at the Right Age [PNAIC] and the National Common Curricular Base [BNCC] are examples of the commitment of government agencies to guarantee the right to education with a view to promoting the quality of teaching and learning for children in the schooling process. In order to improve the quality of Brazilian public education, educational assessments are carried out (e.g., Program for International Student Assessment [PISA]; Basic Education Assessment System [SAEB]; “Prova Brasil”) with the purpose of measuring the level of learning in different areas of knowledge, considering the curriculum adopted by education systems (Boruchovitch, 2009; Bzuneck, 2009). The results of these evaluations play a fundamental role in Brazilian education, as they provide subsidies for the formulation, reformulation and monitoring of public policies and intervention programs adjusted to the diagnosed needs for each school reality.

In this context, the quality of the learning process is mediated by individual factors of the students (i.e., socioeconomic level; aspects of health and others), of the teachers (i.e., quality of education; motivation; and others) and by aspects inherent to the organization and school structuring (i.e., physical structure; pedagogical political project and others), as well as the quality of the relationships established between students, teachers, school (Bzuneck, 2009; Medeiros, Soares, & Monteiro, 2021) and family (Araújo et al., 2022) and also contextual and individual aspects (Fernandes & Lemos, 2020), or even considering the existence of +diagnoses such as ADHD (Oliveira, et al., 2019).

The learning process is influenced by aspects beyond cognitive ones, the so-called socioemotional skills. Social-emotional competencies refer to the ability to understand and manage emotions; to establish and achieve goals; to make autonomous and responsible decisions; to face adverse situations creatively and constructively; and they have been shown to be an effective way to promote learning (Santos & Primi, 2014). Investment in the development of socioemotional skills has been shown to be an effective way to promote learning because it is one of the ways to stimulate the development of self-efficacy beliefs (Pajares & Olaz, 2008). In the school context, socioemotional competencies contribute to the improvement of the teaching-learning process, as well as to the prevention of students’ learning problems; in addition to being one of the components that lead to the promotion of school success or failure, and that predict academic and professional performance in adulthood (Castro, Bueno, & Peixoto, 2021).

Another important aspect in this process is the motivation of the student to learn. Being motivated is necessary for there to be an involvement in the process of knowledge construction (Bzuneck, 2009). Although essential, there is much debate about the definition of motivation, and it is possible to find a range of theories that understand it as a process or a psychological processing (Cavenaghi & Oliveira, 2019).

In this article, motivation will be considered as an action that drives the person towards perseverance or modification of the course of their actions (Bzuneck, 2009). When applying this definition to the school context, it is understood that a motivated student will be able to mobilize his behavior for the development of skills and competences required in the schooling process (i.e., school performance; interpersonal relationships; communication; curiosity; emotional self-regulation; responsibility; collaboration and others). In this sense, the motivated student will use his basic repertoire of experiences to engage, perform (i.e., study; start work; and others) and persevere until reaching his goal (Boruchovitch, 2009), while a demotivated student will have difficulties of learning school contents, which will lead to low performance (Zimmerman, 1998).

Based on the assumptions of Social Cognitive theory, teachers can work to improve part of these elements (i.e., psychological, cognitive, emotional, behavioral aspects). Among the contributions that teachers can offer to their students, so that they have a quality and enjoyable teaching, is the task of stimulating the development of more robust and favorable self-efficacy beliefs. (Pajares & Olaz, 2008). In this line, in addition to being related to the reasons or purposes of individuals to engage in an activity, motivation is also linked to perceptions about their own difficulty and ability to carry out the activities, to personal interest and the attribution of values pertinent to the specific activity (Antunes, Fernandes, & Lemos, 2022; Benincá, Costa, Patias, & Oliveira, 2022; Sacilotto & Abaid, 2021). These three components influence the way students understand their own learning process and the way they respond to the demands of the school environment.

Thus, studying the relationship between motivation to learn, socioemotional skills and school performance will help to verify how much learning is associated with socioemotional characteristics, as well as it impacts on school performance. Therefore, this study will contribute so that this theme can have a more robust foundation and thus can be implemented in school practice and in future academic research. Given the above, this research aimed constitutes a systematic review of the literature that investigated the relationship between motivation to learn, socioemotional skills and school performance in children enrolled in elementary school.

Method

The elaboration of the research question followed the strategy represented by the acronym Patient, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes and Study Type (PICOS; Akobeng, 2005), which consists of a synthesis of the fundamental elements for the construction of the guiding question of the review evidence-based system. These elements are present in Table 1.

Table 1
Description of the components of the PICOT strategy

P	Children and adolescents enrolled in elementary school.
I	Psychological measurement or testing with absence or presence of school interventions.
C	-
O	School learning, psychological characteristics, personality traits and school engagement.
T	Randomized clinical trials; Control cases and cut research.
Which school strategies stimulate motivation to learn, socioemotional skills and school performance in elementary school children and adolescents?

• Note. Adapted from the Akobeng (2005).

Study delineation

This systematic review followed the recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Liberati et al., 2009). Initially, it was decided to minimize bias in the selection and identification of articles by consulting professionals with extensive experience in the area of Library Science (01) and Educational Psychology (03), in order to ensure that the search strategy demonstrated scope and specificities to identify as many relevant publications as possible about the topic of interest. In this sense, the bases were suggested by the librarian and the keywords by the professionals of School Psychology.

Publications search strategy

After the recommendations of the experts, between the 1^st and 10^th of August 2020, the search strategy used the keywords: “learning motivation” OR “school motivation” AND “school achievement” OR “school performance” AND “social and emotional learning” OR “socioemotional” OR social-emotional” OR “social emotional”, in consultation with seven databases: Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA); Educational Administration Abstracts (EDUC); Education Resources Information Center (ERIC); PsycArticles; ScienceDirect; SCOPUS; Web of Science, selecting the fill field for retrieving publications in the last 10 years and peer-reviewed research reports.

Eligibility criteria for the selection of publications

The publications retrieved were selected by two independent judges based on four eligibility criteria in order to ensure the suitability of the topic in relation to the research problem. Selection criteria were: (1) peer-reviewed empirical research reports; (2) focusing on the school context; (3) of which sample consisted of children who were enrolled in elementary school I and II, or equivalent school year in other countries; (4) of which results presented statistical data that related: Motivation to Learn and/or Socioemotional Skills with School Performance.

Publication selection process

The publication selection process was carried out independently by two researchers by reading the titles, abstracts and keywords of all retrieved publications considering their suitability for eligibility criteria. At this stage, in order to avoid loss of relevant material, only duplicate publications and those that indicated total disagreement with the established criteria were excluded. The remaining publications were read in its entirety, excluding articles that did not describe the use of instruments that evaluated the constructs of interest. After the final selection, the results were submitted to reliability analysis using Cohen’s Kappa method, which indicated an almost perfect level of agreement between the judges (Kappa = 0.89; p>0.001). Finally, all incompatibilities found at the end of the selection process were discussed among the researchers in order to reach a consensus regarding the inclusion of the publication in the review.

Data extraction processes

The metadata of the final sample of publications were extracted and tabulated in a Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet (2016 version). The following categories were extracted: (1) identification of publications (such as authors, year of publication and other pertinent information); (2) method (such as sample characteristics, instruments, related constructs, data analysis and other relevant information) and (3) results (such as effect size of the relationship between variables, correlation, comparison between groups).

Assessment of report quality and risk of publication bias

The quality of the reporting of publications will be evaluated according to the criteria described in Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE; Von Elm et al., 2014). However, not all criteria are suitable for research and human sciences: criteria 1, 12d, 12e, 13c, 15, 16c, 17 and 22 were excluded from the evaluation of articles.

Data analysis strategy

Initially, descriptive analyses were performed in order to identify the most frequent sample characteristics in the different studies. Then, the selected studies were divided in relation to the research design used: cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies and randomized studies with case-control. The studies of each category were analyzed qualitatively, in which the objectives and main results were extracted, from this information interpretations were made about the relationship between the variables focus of this study.

Results

As shown in Figure 1, in the first step of searching for publications, the query identified a total of 9,631 publications (ASSIA: n = 5,371 | EDUC: n = 371 | ERIC: n = 2,546 | PsycArticles: n = 1,028 | ScienceDirect: n = 72 | SCOPUS: n = 165 | Web of Science: n = 78). Of this total, 33 publications were excluded due to duplicate identification, and 9,392 research reports were excluded after reading the titles, abstracts and keywords that did not meet the eligibility criteria. At the end of this stage, the number of publications narrowed to 206 research reports, and from the full reading, 162 publications were excluded, totaling a final sample of publications consisted of 44 research reports.

Figure 1
Flowchart of the search strategy and publication selection process.

Methodological quality and risk of bias

The publications were analyzed according to the methodological delineation adopted in the retrieved publications. Longitudinal observational studies (n = 20; 45.40%; Berg & Aber, 2015; Cambron et al., 2017; Cripiano et al., 2019; Che et al., 2012; Covay et al., 2010; Elliott et al., 2018; Habók et al., 2020; Hoglund et al., 2015; Józsa & Barrett, 2018; Ketonen & Hotulainen, 2019; Leonard & Gudiño, 2016; Metsäpelto & Pulkkinen, 2012; Niehaus & Adelson, 2014; Oberle et al, 2014; O’Neal et al., 2018; 2019; Quirk et al., 2017; Rasheed et al., 2019; Raikesa et al., 2019; Scrimin et al., 2017) applied more rigorous methods of sample control during the testing stages compared to the type of sampling of cross-sectional observational surveys (n = 16; 36.40%; Bayram Özdemir et al., 2016; Freire et al., 2019; Hill & Roberts, 2019; Hintsanen et al., 2012; Jenkins & Demaray, 2015; Kozina et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2012; Mantz et al., 2016; Martinelli, 2014; Mata et al., 2018; McKown et al., 2016; Raufelder et al., 2013; Steinmayr et al., 2018; Urhahne et al., 2011; You et al., 2016; Zorza et al., 2017). In this way, the quality of the research report obtained a better evaluation of the criteria required by the adapted checklist of STROBE (Limaye et al., 2018), reaching 88% and 65.94%, respectively.

The methodological rigor of randomized intervention studies with case-control (n = 8, 18.20%; Bavarian et al., 2013; Burnette et al., 2017; Connor et al., 2010; DiPerna et al., 2018; Dougherty, & Sharkey, 2017; Jones et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2011; Leichtentritt & Shechtman, 2010) adopted more forms of sample control and described more details in the research procedures, therefore, the research report had higher quality, which reached 79% of the analyzed criteria.

Characteristics of final publications sample

These surveys were carried out with samples from all continents. The largest number of studies were with samples from the United States (n = 24; 54.54%), followed by Finland (n = 3; 6.81%), Germany (n = 3; 6.81%), Hungary (n = 2; 4.54%) and China (n = 2; 4.54%), and, finally, from countries with only one publication, such as Australia, Brazil, Canada, South Korea, Slovenia, Spain, Israel, Portugal, Tanzania and Turkey (n = 10; 23.72%). The description of the studies is presented in the Appendices.

In addition to the diversity of countries, Table 2 shows which constructs were the focus of interest for researchers to search for an explanation of associations with the dimensions of interest. On the one hand, among aspects of the social context (e.g., parental involvement and communication; the mother’s educational level; the academic performance of teachers and others), the findings indicated positive and significant associations with Motivation to Learn, Socioemotional Skills and School Performance. On the other hand, with regard to individual aspects, the relationship between School Performance and psychological attributes that integrate Socioemotional Skills (e.g., courage, confidence, self-management and others) was more studied than Motivation to Learn.

Table 2
Constructs related to socioemotional skills, motivation to learn and school performance investigated in the selected studies

Context	Constructs	Description
Aspects of the social context	Parental Involvement	Positive, harmonious and non-punitive affective relationships.
	Parental Communication	Effective and assertive communication.
	Mother’s educational level	High level of education.
	Academic performance of teachers	High level of education.
	Children’s perception of the school’s interpersonal climate	Perception of the level of how much children like their peers and teachers.
Subjective and individual aspects	Decision making	Process of choosing between existing alternatives.
	Social understanding	Understand social reality.
	Internal and external regulation	Ability to monitor and modulate emotion, cognition and behavior to achieve a goal and/or adapt to the cognitive and social demands of specific situations.
	Courage	Ability to persevere and consistency of interests.
	Confidence	Ability to trust one’s own abilities.
	Connection with others	Ability to feel connected to other people.
	Social skills	Ability to connect in a healthy and assertive way.
	Positive and negative emotions	Internal experiencing of positive (euphoria) or negative (fear) feelings.
	Self-management	Ability to manage own behavior.
	Self-efficacy	Belief in own ability to successfully complete tasks and influence the behavior of others.
	Empathy and empathic concern	Ability to understand how the other feels.
	Self-concept	How perceive oneself in front of the other.
	Relationship skills	Ability to initiate and maintain social relationships.
	Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation	Disposition and force of internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic) origin that maintain the engagement of a behavior.
	School avoidance	Pattern of refusing or avoiding school.
	Like school	Expressing positive feelings when at school.
	School self-concept	Set of individual representations - cognitive, affective and behavioral - about their own school performance.
	Verbal fluency	Student speech rate.
	Math performance	Ability to recognize, read and interpret numbers, math problems, graphs, geometric and plane figures.
	Reading skill	Word decoding ability.
	Grades	Raw measurement of student performance in a given subject.

Cross-sectional observational studies

From cross-sectional observational studies, it was possible to perceive the positive impact that motivation and socioemotional skills had on academic performance. However, the diversity of definitions and extent of concepts did not allow an estimate of this impact to be made (e.g., Freire et al., 2019; Hill & Roberts, 2019). confidence and character and emotional self-regulation can be mentioned as competences that can contribute positively or negatively to performance depending on the possibility of their development (Ozdemir et al., 2017). It is important to emphasize that the teaching-learning process implies moments of success and failure. In this way, emotions play an important role in this process, as the school context must be a place that provides students with positive emotions and equips them to deal with negative emotions.

Regarding teachers, studies indicate that the perception they have of students (overestimating or underestimating) their cognitive and emotional capacities mainly influence students’ motivation, which indirectly affects school performance. The way they socially and emotionally connect with students affects their ability to be self-confident about their own performance and feel less motivated to seek academic success (e.g., Mantz et al., 2018). Thus, the teacher is the student’s point of reference to deal with frustrations that involve the learning process.

Regarding motivation, few cross-sectional studies have directly explored its effect on school performance. This made it difficult to identify a pattern in the way this attribute influences school performance (Hintsanen et al., 2012; Martinelli, 2014). In some studies, motivation to learn was associated or related to the relationship with parents (Hill & Roberts, 2019; Mata et al., 2018) and teachers (Raufelder et al., 2013; Urhahne et al., 2011).

Longitudinal studies

Longitudinal studies showed an increase in the extrinsic motivation of the student in relation to the ethnicity of the teacher (Rasheed et al., 2020). When student and teacher share the same ethnicity, the student is more motivated to learn by engaging in school activities. In this sense, the teacher plays a role of identification, representation and belonging in the classroom. Regarding to socioemotional competences, the results identified the existence of a positive relationship between school performance and engagement, both in the experimental group and in the control group, but only in specific school grades (6th and 7th grade in the experimental and 7th grade in the control) (Cipriano et al., 2019). Perseverance and effort were predictors for performance in the literacy process (O’Neal et al., 2020) especially when they focused on the development of social and emotional competence as positive and significant predictors of reading outcomes in boys only. (Oberle et al., 2014).

In addition, positive self-concept beliefs had a significant effect in 6th grade, but this same self-concept had a low direct effect on performance on the reading test in 8th grade (Habók et al., 2010). It can be hypothesized that this result is related to human development itself, as it is known that this stage of life is surrounded by questions and marked by the search for inclusion in groups, thus de-characterizing the self-concept perceived by adolescents (Gasparotto et al., 2011). School ranking stability was a predictor, but not significantly associated with outcomes (Leonard & Gudiño, 2016).

Randomized case-control studies

Studies that reported interventions through randomized control of participants and the use of control groups described the results of different outcomes for interventions at the school level, such as the growth of mindset online (Burnette et al., 2017); the 4Rs Program (Jones et al., 2010; 2011); the Social Skills Improvement System Classwide Intervention Program (SSIS-CIP; DiPerna et al., 2017); the Positive Action Intervention (Bavarian et al., 2013); the individualization of teaching (Connor et al., 2010); the intervention of Reconnecting Youth (Dougherty, & Sharkey, 2017) and the Group Counseling (Leichtentritt & Shechtman; 2010).

The results of the interventions did not always corroborate the initial proposal. In the study by Burnette et al. (2017), the results obtained revealed the lack of full effects of Motivation to Learn and Learning Effectiveness on school attitudes and final grades of students. Furthermore, Connor et al. (2010) presented that the intervention focused on individualizing the instruction of school activities and tasks for first graders promoted an increase in self-regulation in the intervention groups of students, however, when compared to children who received generalist instructions, the results did not show a difference between the groups. In both interventions, the authors questioned the previous characteristics of students who already had well-developed basic skills and did not present a history of conflict in the transition of school grades. However, gains were observed at the intra-student level, as they presented improvements in their positive attitudes, self-regulation and mother tongue learning.

The intervention of the 4Rs Program (i.e., 4Rs: Reading, Writing, Respect and Resolution) described in the studies by Jones et al. (2010; 2011) did not indicate strong evidence of short-term changes to the cognitive and interpersonal functioning of hostile and aggressive bias and school performance of the children evaluated. In this study, after the first year of the intervention, there was a single effect on the attributional biases of hostility and aggression in children; in self-reported symptoms of depression; and no main effect on children’s literacy skills and attention span. The results of the studies are closer to the scope of mental health of children at school, since the effect of the intervention minimized the attributional biases of hostility and aggressiveness in children, favoring the development of social skills with the reduction of internalizing behaviors.

Two years after the intervention, the authors observed a slower development of hostile and aggressive behaviors compared with an increase in the same behaviors in children from the control schools (e.g., reduction of hostile and aggressive attribution bias; of aggressive interpersonal negotiation strategies among peers; and self-reported symptoms of depression). In addition, an increase in students’ social skills was observed compared to a decrease in this behavior in children in the control group. Finally, the teachers’ report indicated that there was an increase in attention capacity and assertive behavior among students and an increase in the performance scores of children with greater behavioral risk. This reinforces the fact that performance should be evaluated by areas and types of learning process such as reading, writing and calculations, for example.

Bavarian et al. (2013) reported the results of the “Positive Action” intervention (AP; program that encourages the development of skills related to problem solving, self-control, emotional regulation and attention), in order to compare school performance over time between students whose schools did or did not receive the intervention. The results indicated a reduction in absenteeism among students and in dissatisfaction with learning, culminating in increased motivation and school performance. In this context, the authors suggested that having positive affects for the school environment (e.g., liking the school and the teachers; good perception of the school climate) can act as a mediating variable in the relationship between the components of executive function (e.g., attention; emotional regulation; and self-regulation), as well as other variables that can influence school performance (e.g., parents’ higher education level).

The results of the Social Skills Improvement System Classwide Intervention Program (SSIS-CIP; DiPerna et al., 2018), which stimulates the development of empathy, social involvement, school motivation and school involvement, evidenced the improvement of learning in the classroom. The results show that students in the intervention group presented higher levels of empathy and social involvement to engage in school activities. The intervention report Reconnecting Youth (RY; Dougherty & Sharkey, 2017), demonstrated that stimulation, emotional self-regulation, and empathy and social support help students to reverse histories of school failure, promoting increased connection with the school environment to improve student performance through the understanding of emotional skills.

Another important view suggested by the studies was the possible influence of aspects that are not measured in the classroom. Among them, one can mention the quality of teacher interactions with students, including strong and positive relationships and creating supportive learning, weakened and conflicted relationships that can pull students away from the learning process and negatively impact motivation to learn. (Bavarian et al., 2013; Burnette et al., 2017). In addition, alerting to the uniqueness and specificities of some results, such as the supposed difficulties faced in the transition from elementary school II to high school (Connor et al., 2010), or even aspects related to ethnicity (African American, Hispanic, and Native American youth), socioeconomic status (e.g., low income), gender (e.g., being male) in the United States, that are considered predictors of school dropout (Burnette et al., 2017).

Discussion

This systematic review sought to investigate the relationships between motivation to learn, socioemotional skills and school performance in children and adolescents enrolled in elementary school or equivalent school grades reported in scientific publications in the areas of Education and School Psychology. The discussion will be presented considering the types of studies found, namely cross-sectional observational studies, longitudinal observational studies, and randomized case-control studies.

This work presents efforts to systematize the main research findings focused on the investigation of Motivation to Learn, Socioemotional Skills and School Performance in the school environment. In general, the results of this review indicate a positive relationship between the three constructs, corroborating the literature that illustrates the benefits of various indicators of school and psychological well-being of children and adolescents to enhance learning and school performance.

However, the low number of studies focusing on Motivation to Learn, specifically related to the school performance construct, became a complicating element for conducting a meta-analysis. The variety of definitions of motivation highlights the complexity of understanding the construct. In addition, the large number of theoretical components that motivation can unfold (i.e., motivation to read; to learn; for student-focused mathematics or for teaching by teachers; intrinsic and extrinsic) (Elliott et al., 2018; Martinelli, 2014; You et al., 2016), hampered the unification of the construct based on a theoretical perspective.

In this sense, some factors need to be considered, such as the absence of a robust and general theory on the definition of motivation, its facets and the way it relates to school performance. However, this aspect does not mean that motivation does not play a role in influencing school performance, it just demonstrates the scarcity of basic research that investigates “how”, “how much” and “the type” of motivation that impacts school performance. Second, the association of motivation with individual cognitive skills (i.e., frustration tolerance, perseverance, cognitive flexibility, and effort) will produce positive effects to increase school performance. In this aspect, socioemotional skills must be prioritized for the development of cognitive skills adapted to face situations of which initial planning has been frustrated.

Regarding to socioemotional skills, the importance of these skills for the learning process in the early school years is reinforced. Emotion management skills and effective communication, combined with educational practices that favor active listening and problem-solving attitudes, produce positive effects for the adapted development of the personality of children and adolescents. In this way, socioemotional skills favor the student to engage in the learning process, however, if these skills are not properly developed, the student may feel discouraged, which will directly reflect on the Motivation to Learn.

Another aspect related to socioemotional skills that deserve to be highlighted is tolerance to frustration (i.e., negative reactions to failure). Tolerance appeared as a factor related to motivation and influencing the school performance of students. A possible explanation for this is the fact that when the student does not reach a certain goal, and has been taught to deal with frustration, he tends to go in search of the goal and adopt new strategies to achieve it. This is in line with the statement of Bzuneck (2009) who indicated motivation as the impulse, either towards perseverance or the modification of the course of their actions in pursuit of a certain goal. In this sense, negative reactions to failure were able to predict all measures of school performance (Józsa & Barrett, 2018). Thus, both context and classmates can influence the performance of low-achieving students.

Despite having as main division extrinsic and intrinsic motivation it is important to consider that motivation can be understood considering the context or agents involved in this process (e.g., motivation to learn, motivation for reading, motivation for mathematics or even motivation based on agents, for example teachers, students, and family in general). This allows us to infer the existence of a series of possibilities of relationships and understanding of motivation. Thus, the motivation to learn, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, presents distinct possibilities of understanding that must be analyzed considering the context in which it is researched. Therefore, it is only possible to speak of these subtypes of motivation when one has a general definition, since it will be the basis for understanding how these subtypes manifest and are perceived when linked to specific objectives (Boruchovitch, 2009).

The behavior and expectation of the teacher, as well as the relationship with peers also influence the way the student relates to the school environment and activity. This may be related to the hypothesis that a student with low performance when placed in classrooms with medium to high performance students tends to feel unable to compare with his peers and consequently have his performance reduced, thus presenting a low tolerance for frustration (Ketonen & Hotulainen, 2019; Scrimin et al., 2018). In this sense, the internalization of the importance of the teaching-learning process has a positive impact in mitigating the frustration of not presenting equal or superior performance to their peers. School performance is also influenced by activities outside the classroom environment, such as participation in artistic activities (Freire et al., 2019). In addition, the family context, as an affective reference of the student, has an impact on his emotional behavior within the school context, so the greater the involvement of the parents, the less socioemotional problems children tend to present and the better their performance tends to be (Niehaus & Adelson, 2014).

Therefore, the main aspect external to the school context identified in the review was the intertwining of pedagogical practices and the presence of the family, reinforcing that their involvement is essential for the student’s learning process. In this way, develop social projects that involve the community and the student (e.g. reading books on the streets; geographical recognition of the streets where the school is located; recognition of the location of each student’s house and others) or delegating social functions within the school (e.g. putting together artistic presentations; participating in decisions that affect the school’s relationship with parents; leading a committee to combat bullying or cultural appreciation) strengthen the bond between the community and the family with the school environment.

Finally, the improvement in school performance can also be connected to innovative practices that encourage the application of knowledge transmitted in the classroom. In this perspective, teachers assume a leading role with students when adjusting some educational practices. Thus, it is suggested that future research focus on investigating the impact of types of motivation and specific socioemotional skills on school performance, including the various variables that moderate this relationship, such as the teacher’s teaching style, student-teacher relationship, student-teacher relationship. parents, school-parents relationship, and the different ways of achieving school performance in addition to formal evaluation grades.

References

• Akobeng, A. K. (2005). Principles of evidence based medicine. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90(8), 837-840.doi:10.1136/adc.2005.071761
  » https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.071761
• Antunes, Q. P., Fernandes, G. N. A., & Lemos, S. M. A. (2022). Behavioral aspects and learning motivation: A study of middle school adolescentes. CoDAS, 34(5), e20210119. doi:10.1590/2317-1782/20212021119
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1782/20212021119
• Araújo, M. P. M., Kiefer, S. B., & Silva, R. B. (2022). Concepções de discentes do 6º ano do ensino fundamental acerca da relevância da família em seus processos de escolarização: Um estudo exploratório [Conceptions of 6th grade students about the relevance of the family in their schooling processes: An exploratory study]. Oikos: Família e Sociedade em Debate, 33(1), 1-18. doi:10.31423/oikos.v33i1.12850
  » https://doi.org/10.31423/oikos.v33i1.12850
• Bavarian, N., Lewis, K. M., DuBois, D. L., Acock, A., Vuchinich, S., Silverthorn, N., … Flay, B. R. (2013). Using social-emotional and character development to improve academic outcomes: A matched-pair, cluster-randomized controlled trial in low-income, urban schools. The Journal of School Health, 83(11), 771-779. doi:10.1111/josh.12093
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12093
• Bayram Özdemir, S., Cheah, C. S. L., & Coplan, R. J. (2016). Processes and conditions underlying the link between shyness and school adjustment among Turkish children. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 35(2), 218-236. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12158
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12158
• Benincá, M. E. S., Costa, C., Patias, N. D., & Oliveira, C. (2022). Atribuições causais para rendimento/desempenho escolar e autoeficácia em alunos do ensino fundamental [Causal attributions for school performance and self-efficacy in elementary school students]. Psicologia Argumento, 40(108), 1365-1391. doi:10.7213/psicolargum40.108.AO02
  » https://doi.org/10.7213/psicolargum40.108.AO02
• Berg, J. K., & Aber, J. L. (2015). A multilevel view of predictors of children’s perceptions of school interpersonal climate. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4), 1150-1170. doi:10.1037/edu0000027
  » https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000027
• Boruchovitch, E. (2009). A motivação do aluno [The student motivation] (4a ed.). Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes.
• Burnette, J. L., Russell, M. V., Hoyt, C. L., Orvidas, K., &Widman, L. (2017). An online growth mindset intervention in a sample of rural adolescent girls. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 88(3), 428-445. doi:10.1111/bjep.12192
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12192
• Bzuneck, J. A. (2009). A motivação do aluno: Aspectos introdutórios [The student motivation: Introductory aspects]. In E. Boruchovitch & J. A. Bzuneck (Orgs.), A motivação do aluno: Contribuições da psicologia contemporânea [The student motivation: Contributions of contemporary psychology] (4th ed., pp. 9-36). Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes .
• Cambron, C., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Guttmannova, K., Herrenkohl, T. I., Hill, K. G., & Hawkins, J. D. (2017). The role of self-regulation in academic and behavioral paths to a high school diploma. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 3(3), 304-325. doi:10.1007/s40865-017-0066-5
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-017-0066-5
• Cavenaghi, D. M., & Oliveira, L. A. G. (2019). Motivação: Contribuições da psicopedagogia no contexto escolar [Motivation: Contributions of psychopedagogy in the school context]. Foco: Caderno de Estudos e Pesquisas, (17), 26-42. http://www.revistafoco.inf.br/index.php/FocoFimi/article/view/882
  » http://www.revistafoco.inf.br/index.php/FocoFimi/article/view/882
• Chen, X., Zhang, G., Chen, H., & Li, D. (2012). Performance on delay tasks in early childhood predicted socioemotional and school adjustment nine years later: A longitudinal study in Chinese children. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 1(1), 3-14. doi:10.1037/a0026363
  » https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026363
• Cipriano, C., Barnes, T. N., Rivers, S. E., & Brackett, M. (2019). Exploring changes in student engagement through the ruler approach: An examination of students at risk of academic failure. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 24(1), 1-19. doi:10.1080/10824669.2018.1524767
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2018.1524767
• Connor, C. M., Ponitz, C. C., Phillips, B. M., Travis, Q. M., Glasney, S., & Morrison, F. J. (2010). First graders’ literacy and self-regulation gains: The effect of individualizing student instruction. Journal of School Psychology, 48(5), 433-455. doi10.1016/j.jsp.2010.06.003
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.06.003
• Covay, E., & Carbonaro, W. (2010). After the bell: Participation in extracurricular activities, classroom behavior, and academic achievement. Sociology of Education, 83(1), 20-45. doi:10.1177/0038040709356565
  » https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040709356565
• Castro, A. M. F. M., Bueno, J. M. H., & Peixoto, E. M. (2021). Socioemotional and cognitive skills: Its relation to school performance in elementary school. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 31, e3137. doi:10.1590/1982-4327e3137
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-4327e3137
• DiPerna, J. C., Lei, P., Cheng, W., Hart, S. C., & Bellinger, J. (2018). A cluster randomized trial of the Social Skills Improvement System-Classwide Intervention Program (SSIS-CIP) in first grade. Journal of Educational Psychology , 110(1), 1-16. doi:10.1037/edu0000191
  » https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000191
• Dougherty, D., & Sharkey, J. (2017). Reconnecting youth: Promoting emotional competence and social support to improve academic achievement. Children and Youth Services Review, 74, 28-34. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.01.021
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.01.021
• Elliott, S. N., Davies, M. D., Frey, J. R., Gresham, F., & Cooper, G. (2018). Development and initial validation of a social emotional learning assessment for universal screening. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 55, 39-51. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2017.06.002
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.06.002
• Fernandes, G. N. A., & Lemos, S. M. A. (2020). Motivação para aprender no ensino fundamental e a associação com aspectos individuais e contextuais [Motivation to learn in middle school and association with individual and contextual aspects]. CoDAS , 32(6), e20190247. doi:10.1590/2317-1782/20192019247
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1782/20192019247
• Freire, S., Pipa, J., Aguiar, C., Silva, F. V., & Moreira, S. (2019).Student-teacher closeness and conflict in students with and without special educational needs. British Educational Research Journal, 46(3), 480-499. doi:10.1002/berj.3588
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3588
• Gasparotto, G. S., Szeremeta, T. P., Vagetti, G. C., Stoltz, T., &Oliveira, V. (2018). O autoconceito de estudantes de ensino médio e sua relação com desempenho acadêmico: Uma revisão sistemática [The self-concept of high school students and their relationship with academic performance: A review systematic]. Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 31(1), 21-37. Retrieved from https://www.redalyc.org/journal/374/37454959006/37454959006.pdf
  » https://www.redalyc.org/journal/374/37454959006/37454959006.pdf
• Habók, A., Magyar, A., Németh, M. B., & Csapó, B. (2020). Motivation and self-related beliefs as predictors of academic achievement in reading and mathematics: Structural equation models of longitudinal data. International Journal of Educational Research, 103, e101634. doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101634
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101634
• Hill, K. A., & Roberts, D. D. (2019). Parent-adolescent communication and social impacts on black American adolescents’ academic well-being. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 3207-3219. doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01497-3
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01497-3
• Hintsanen, M., Alatupa, S., Jokela, M., Lipsanen, J., Hintsa, T., & Leino, M. (2012). Associations of temperament traits and mathematics grades in adolescents are dependent on the rater but independent of motivation and cognitive ability. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(4), 490-497. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.006
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.006
• Hoglund, W. L. G., Jones, S. M., Brown, J. L., & Aber, J. L. (2015).The evocative influence of child academic and social-emotional adjustment on parent involvement in inner-city schools. Journal of Educational Psychology , 107(2), 517-532. doi:10.1037/a0037266
  » https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037266
• Jenkins, L. N., & Demaray, M. K. (2015). Indirect effects in the peer victimization-academic achievement relation: The role of academic self-concept and gender. Psychology in the Schools, 52(3), 235-247. doi:10.1002/pits.21824
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21824
• Jones, S. M., Brown, J. L., & Aber, J. L. (2011). Two-year impacts of a universal school-based social-emotional and literacy intervention: An experiment in translational developmental research. Child Development, 82(2), 533-554. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01560.x
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01560.x
• Jones, S. M., Brown, J. L., Hoglund, W. L. G., & Aber, J. L. (2010).A school-randomized clinical trial of an integrated social-emotional learning and literacy intervention: Impacts after 1 school year. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(6), 829-842. doi:10.1037/a0021383
  » https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021383
• Józsa, K., & Barrett, K. C. (2018). Affective and social mastery motivation in preschool as predictors of early school success: A longitudinal study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 45(4), 81-92. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.05.007
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.05.007
• Ketonen, E. E., & Hotulainen, R. (2019). Development of low-stakes mathematics and literacy test scores during lower secondary school - A multilevel pattern-centered analysis of student and classroom differences. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, e101793. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101793
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101793
• Kozina, A., Wiium, N., Gonzalez, J.-M., & Dimitrova, R. (2018). Positive youth development and academic achievement in Slovenia. Child & Youth Care Forum, 48(2, 223-240. doi:10.1007/s10566-018-9457-y
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-018-9457-y
• Leichtentritt, J., & Shechtman, Z. (2010). Children with and without learning disabilities: A comparison of processes and outcomes following group counseling. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(2), 169-179. doi:10.1177/0022219409345008
  » https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409345008
• Leonard, S. S., & Gudiño, O. G. (2016). Academic and mental health outcomes of youth placed in out-of-home care: The role of school stability and engagement. Child & Youth Care Forum , 45(6), 807-827. doi:10.1007/s10566-016-9357-y
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9357-y
• Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P., ... Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), W65-W94. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00136
  » https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00136
• Limaye, D., Pitani, R. S., Limaye, V., Sydymanov, A., Otzipka, C., Ziesenis, P., & Fortwengel, G. (2018). Development of a quantitative scoring method for Strobe checklist. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica - Drug Research, 75(5), 1095-1106. doi:10.32383/appdr/84804
  » https://doi.org/10.32383/appdr/84804
• Liu, J., Zhou, Y., & Li, D. (2012). School adjustment and internalizing problems in Chinese adolescents: Implications of social change. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 40(4), 657-666. doi:10.2224/sbp.2012.40.4.657
  » https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2012.40.4.657
• Mantz, L. S., Bear, G. G., Yang, C., & Harris, A. (2018). The Delaware Social-Emotional Competency Scale (DSECS-S): Evidence of validity and reliability. Child Indicators Research, 11(1), 137-157. doi:10.1007/s12187-016-9427-6
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-016-9427-6
• Martinelli, S. C. (2014). Um estudo sobre desempenho escolar e motivação de crianças [Academic performance and motivation of children study]. Educar em Revista, (53), 201-216. doi:10.1590/0104-4060.27122
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-4060.27122
• Mata, L., Pedro, I., & Peixoto, F. J. (2018). Parental support, student motivational orientation and achievement: The impact of emotions. International Journal of Emotional Education, 10(2), 77-92. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1197565.pdf
  » https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1197565.pdf
• McKown, C., Russo-Ponsaran, N. M., Allen, A., Johnson, J. K., & Warren-Khot, H. K. (2016). Social-emotional factors and academic outcomes among elementary-aged children. Infant and Child Development , 25(2), 119-136. doi:10.1002/icd.1926
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1926
• Medeiros, H. C. P., Soares, A. B., & Monteiro, M. C. (2021). Adolescent social skills, perception of social support and motivation to learn: The impact on school performance. Psico-USF, 26(3), 533-543. doi:10.1590/1413-82712021260311
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-82712021260311
• Metsäpelto, R.-L., & Pulkkinen, L. (2012). Socioemotional behavior and school achievement in relation to extracurricular activity participation in middle childhood. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56(2), 167-182. doi:10.1080/00313831.2011.581681
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.581681
• Morano, S., Markelz, A. M., Randolph, K. M., Myers, A. M., & Church, N. (2021). Motivation matters: Three strategies to support motivation and engagement in mathematics. Intervention in School and Clinic, 57(1), 15-22. doi:10.1177/1053451221994803
  » https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451221994803
• Niehaus, K., & Adelson, J. L. (2014). School Support, Parental Involvement, and Academic and Social-Emotional Outcomes for English Language Learners. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 810-844. doi:10.3102/0002831214531323
  » https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214531323
• Oberle, E., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Hertzman, C., & Zumbo, B. D. (2014). Social-emotional competencies make the grade: Predicting academic success in early adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology , 35(3), 138-147. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2014.02.004
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.02.004
• Oliveira, P. V., Muszkat, M., & Fonseca, M. F. B. C. (2019). Relação entre índice de motivação escolar e desempenho acadêmico de crianças com transtorno de déficit de atenção/hiperatividade e grupo controle. [Relation between the academic motivation index and the academic performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and control group] Revista Psicopedagogia, 36(109), 24-33. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-84862019000100004&lng=pt&tlng=pt
  » http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-84862019000100004&lng=pt&tlng=pt
• O’Neal, C. R., Boyars, M. Y., & Riley, L. W. (2019). Dual language learners’ grit, engagement, and literacy achievement in elementary school. School Psychology International, 40(6), 598-623. doi:10.1177/0143034319875176
  » https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034319875176
• O’Neal, C. R., Goldthrite, A., Riley, L. W., & Atapattu, R. K. (2018). A reciprocal, moderated mediation model of grit, engagement, and literacy achievement among dual language learners. Social Development, 27(3), 665-680. doi:10.1111/sode.12288
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12288
• Pajares, F., & Olaz, F. (2008). Teoria social cognitiva e autoeficácia: Uma visão geral [Socio cognitive theory and self-eficcacy: An overview]. In A. Bandura, R. G. Azzi, & S. A. J. Polydoro (Eds.), Teoria social cognitiva: Conceitos básicos [Social cognitive theory: An introduction] (R. C. Costa, Trans., pp. 97-114). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed.
• Quirk, M., Dowdy, E., Goldstein, A., & Carnazzo, K. (2017). School readiness as a longitudinal predictor of social-emotional and reading performance across the elementary grades. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 42(4), 248-253. doi:10.1177/1534508417719680
  » https://doi.org/10.1177/1534508417719680
• Raikes, A., Koziol, N., Janus, M., Platas, L., Weatherholt, T., Smeby, A., & Sayre, R. (2019). Examination of school readiness constructs in Tanzania: Psychometricevaluation of the MELQO scales. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology , 62, 122-134. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.02.003
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.02.003
• Rasheed, D. S., Brown, J. L., Doyle, S. L., & Jennings, P. A. (2020). The effect of teacher-child race/ethnicity matching and classroom diversity on children’s socioemotional and academic skills. Child Development , 91(3), e597-e618. doi:10.1111/cdev.13275
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13275
• Raufelder, D., Drury, K., Jagenow, D., Hoferichter, F., & Bukowski, W. (2013). Development and validation of the Relationship and Motivation (REMO) scale to assess students’ perceptions of peers and teachers as motivators in adolescence. Learning and Individual Differences , 24, 182-189. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.01.001
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.01.001
• Sacilotto, A. L., & Abaid, J. L. W. (2021). Autoconceito em adolescentes e suas relações com desempenho escolar e práticas parentais [Self-concept in adolescents and their relations with school performance and parental practices]. Barbarói, (58), 30-46. doi:10.17058/barbaroi.v0i58.4320
  » https://doi.org/10.17058/barbaroi.v0i58.4320
• Santos, D., & Primi, R. (2014). Desenvolvimento socioemocional e aprendizado escolar: Uma proposta de mensuração para apoiar políticas públicas [Socioemotional development and school learning: A measurement proposal to support public policies]. São Paulo, SP: Instituto Ayrton Senna. Retrieved from https://institutoayrtonsenna.org.br/content/dam/institutoayrtonsenna/documentos/desenvolvimento-socioemocional-e-aprendizado-escolar.pdf
  » https://institutoayrtonsenna.org.br/content/dam/institutoayrtonsenna/documentos/desenvolvimento-socioemocional-e-aprendizado-escolar.pdf
• Scrimin, S., Moscardino, U., Altoè, G., & Mason, L. (2018). Attentional bias for academic stressors and classroom climate predict adolescents’ grades and socioemotional functioning. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28(1), 245-258. doi:10.1111/jora.12329
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12329
• Steinmayr, R., Weidinger, A. F., & Wigfield, A. (2018). Does students’ grit predict their school achievement above and beyond their personality, motivation, and engagement? Contemporary Educational Psychology , 53, 106-122. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.02.004
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.02.004
• Urhahne, D., Chao, S. H., Florineth, M. L., Luttenberger, S., & Paechter, M. (2011). Academic self-concept, learning motivation, and test anxiety of the underestimated student. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 81(Pt 1), 161-177. doi:10.1348/000709910x504500
  » https://doi.org/10.1348/000709910x504500
• von Elm, E., Altman, D. G., Egger, M., Pocock, S. J., Gøtzsche, P. C., & Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2014). The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. International Journal of Surgery, 12(12), 1495-1499. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2014.07.013
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2014.07.013
• You, S., Dang, M., & Lim, S. A. (2016). Effects of student perceptions of teachers’ motivational behavior on reading, English, and mathematics achievement: The mediating role of domain specific self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Child & Youth Care Forum , 45(2), 221-240. doi:10.1007/s10566-015-9326-x
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9326-x
• Zorza, J. P., Marino, J., & Acosta Mesas, A. (2017). Predictive influence of executive functions, effortful control, empathy, and social behavior on the academic performance in early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 39(2), 253-279. doi:10.1177/0272431617737624
  » https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431617737624

• Support:

  O artigo recebeu apoio financeiro da Rede Nacional de Ciência para Educação (Rede CpE) e do Instituto Ayrton Senna (IAS). Edital no 001/2020.

Edited by

Associate editor:

Vanessa Barbosa Romera Leme

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  04 Nov 2022
• Date of issue
  2022

History

• Received
  28 Mar 2022
• Reviewed
  05 July 2022
• Accepted
  06 July 2022