Organizational change in quality management aspects: a quantitative proposal for classification

Aquino, André Tavares de; Silva, Jéssica Larissa; Melo, Renata Maciel de; Silva, Maisa Medonça

doi:10.1590/0103-6513.216516

André Tavares de Aquino

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Caruaru, PE, Brasil

Jéssica Larissa Silva

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Caruaru, PE, Brasil

Renata Maciel de Melo ^* * renatamaciel0@gmail.com

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Caruaru, PE, Brasil

Maisa Medonça Silva

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Caruaru, PE, Brasil

* renatamaciel0@gmail.com

Strengths	Example
Nature of the workforce	Greater diversity of culture; ageing population; immigration and increased outsourcing.
Technology	Faster, cheaper and portable computers; Appearance and growth of social networks (such as Facebook and Orkut); Deciphering the human genetic code.
Economic shocks	Sudden increase of taxes to fight inflation; the collapse of the international financial system; global recession.
Competition	Globalized competition; mergers and consolidations; increased government regulation of trade;
Social trends	Increasing global awareness; liberalization of attitudes toward gay, lesbian and transsexual employees; more tasks and multiple connectivity.
International policies	Anti-capitalist policies in Venezuela, Bolivia and Ecuador; opening markets in China; embargoes on Arab nations such as Iran and Iraq.

Authors	Type I change	Type II change
Weick & Quinn (1999)Weick, K. E., & Quinn, R. E. (1999). Organizational change and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 50(1), 361-386. PMid:15012461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych....	Continuous Constant, cumulative and evolutionary change. It may be small changes, which occur daily throughout all the organization. Moreover, the accumulation of these changes can significantly change the organization.	Episodic It is a frequent, discontinuous and intentional change that occurs in divergent periods, when a company’s equilibrium is unstable.
Nadler et al. (1995)Nadler, D. A., Shaw, R. B., & Walton, A. E. (1995). Discontinuous change: leading organizational transformation (pp. 3-44). San Francisco: The Jossey-Bass Management Series.	Incremental/continuous Continuation of the existing standard. This may have different dimensions, but they are within the current context of the company.	Discontinuous Change of an existing pattern, which occurs in periods of imbalance and involves one or more of the characteristics of company restructuring.
Porras & Robertson (1992)Porras, J. I., & Robertson, P. J. (1992). Organizational development: theory, practice, and research. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 719-822). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.	1st Order It is a linear and continuous change that involves alterations to the characteristics of the system, without breaking key aspects of the organization.	2nd Order It is a multi-dimensional, multi-level, radical and discontinuous change that involves breaking organizational paradigms.
Meyer et al. (1990)	1st Order Adaption: Focus on incremental change within the organization. Incrementalism as a mechanism.	2nd Order Metamorphosis: Focus on frame-breaking change within the organization. Life-cycle stage configuration transitions as a mechanism.
Mintzberg et al. (1998)Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. W., & Lampel, J. (1998). Strategy Safari: a guided tour through the wilds of strategic mangament. New York: Free Press.	Microchange It is focused within the organization. Example: Redefinition of job positions in a factory or development of a new product.	Macrochange It affects the whole organization, including its relations with the environment. Example: Reposition in the marketplace or alteration of all its physical facilities.

Alternatives		Description
Traditional Quality Tools	Fluxogram	Graphic representation showing all steps of the process (Brassard, 1991Brassard, M. (1991). The Memory Jogger: a pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement (2nd ed.). Methuen: Goal/QPC.).
	Checklist	Useful to register direct observations and help to gather facts about the process (Oakland, 1989Oakland, J. (1989). Total quality management. London: Heinemann Professional.).
	Pareto chart	A vertical bar chart that allows us to determine which problems to solve and determine the priority (Brassard, 1991Brassard, M. (1991). The Memory Jogger: a pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement (2nd ed.). Methuen: Goal/QPC.).
	Control Chart	Monitoring a system in order to observe the existence of alterations to the expected average over time (Brassard, 1991Brassard, M. (1991). The Memory Jogger: a pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement (2nd ed.). Methuen: Goal/QPC.).
	Histogram	It involves data measuring, revealing how much variation exists in any process (Brassard, 1991Brassard, M. (1991). The Memory Jogger: a pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement (2nd ed.). Methuen: Goal/QPC.).
	Cause-and-effect diagram (also called Ishikawa or fishbone chart)	The relation between the “effect” and all possibilities of “cause” that may contribute to this effect (Brassard, 1991Brassard, M. (1991). The Memory Jogger: a pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement (2nd ed.). Methuen: Goal/QPC.).
	Scatter plot	Study of the possible relation between two variables (Brassard, 1991Brassard, M. (1991). The Memory Jogger: a pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement (2nd ed.). Methuen: Goal/QPC.).
Management and planning (MP) tools	Relation diagram	It shows many relevant factors in a situation or complex problem, indicating logical relations between the same factors by arrows (Moura, 1994Moura, E. (1994). As sete ferramentas gerenciais da qualidade: implementando a melhoria contínua com maior eficácia. São Paulo: Makron Books.).
	Affinity diagram	It groups together many sets of verbal data about a situation or problem by affinity or natural relation (Moura, 1994Moura, E. (1994). As sete ferramentas gerenciais da qualidade: implementando a melhoria contínua com maior eficácia. São Paulo: Makron Books.).
	Tree diagram	It shows the chaining of all secondary objectives and what is needed to achieve them (Moura, 1994Moura, E. (1994). As sete ferramentas gerenciais da qualidade: implementando a melhoria contínua com maior eficácia. São Paulo: Makron Books.).
	Prioritization matrix	It enables the establishment of a numerical order of priority for possible solutions, tasks or questions (Moura, 1994Moura, E. (1994). As sete ferramentas gerenciais da qualidade: implementando a melhoria contínua com maior eficácia. São Paulo: Makron Books.).
	Relation matrix	Multidimensional analysis, identifying the correlation level between two or more groups of factors (Moura, 1994Moura, E. (1994). As sete ferramentas gerenciais da qualidade: implementando a melhoria contínua com maior eficácia. São Paulo: Makron Books.).
	PDPC diagram	Exploration of possible ways and events, from an initial situation until a desired final situation (Moura, 1994Moura, E. (1994). As sete ferramentas gerenciais da qualidade: implementando a melhoria contínua com maior eficácia. São Paulo: Makron Books.).
	Activities diagram	It details the chaining of activities required to implement and monitor a plan (Moura, 1994Moura, E. (1994). As sete ferramentas gerenciais da qualidade: implementando a melhoria contínua com maior eficácia. São Paulo: Makron Books.).
Quality program	5S	The management and participative program that aims to create adequate work conditions for all people at all hierarchical levels of the organization.
	Quality Function Deployment QFD	Method that seeks to ensure that the final Project of a product or service meets the needs and desires of clients (Slack et al., 2009Slack, N., Chambers, S., & Johnston, R. (2009). Operations management: financial times (6th ed.). Pretencie Hall.).
	Failure mode and effects analysis –FMEA	It identifies failures before they occur using a checklist. The goal is to identify what service/product characteristics are critical (Slack et al., 2009Slack, N., Chambers, S., & Johnston, R. (2009). Operations management: financial times (6th ed.). Pretencie Hall.).
	Six Sigma	The improvement program created by Motorola aiming to eliminate defects and improve the productive process of a product or service (Slack et al., 2009Slack, N., Chambers, S., & Johnston, R. (2009). Operations management: financial times (6th ed.). Pretencie Hall.).
Standard ISO	9001:2015	The ISO 9001:2015 entitled “Quality management systems – Requirements” specifies requirements for quality management systems when an organization needs to demonstrate its abilities or aims to enhance customer satisfaction.
Standard ISO	Set of support standards	These standards, called supporting standards, are important for an efficient and effective QMS. It is worth noting that the company will utilize and implement the supporting standards that best suit the needs and particularities of the company. These standards do not certify.

Criteria	Description/ theoretical basis	Assessments
G₁ - Implementation cost	The implementation cost of the change is a factor that affects changes related to equipment and people (Domingos & Neiva, 2014Domingos, S. G., & Neiva, E. R. (2014). Employee perception on transactional and transformational changes in a public organization. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 18(2), 118-138.).	In thousands of reals (Brazilian currency).
G₂ - Commitment and attitude of the manager towards change	The manager's attitudes concerning the change affect the success of the organizational implementations (Nery & De-Farias, 2009Nery, V. F., & De-Farias, A. K. C. R. (2009). Autocontrole na perspectiva da Análise do Comportamento. In A. K. C. R. Farias (Ed.), Análise comportamental clínica: aspectos teóricos e estudos de caso (1st ed.). Porto Alegre: Artmed.).	Likert scale
		1 – No participation
		2 – Low participation
		3 – Indifferent
		4 – High participation
		5 - Total Participation
G₃ - Duration of implementation of the change	Duration to implement the change in the organization (Domingos & Neiva, 2014Domingos, S. G., & Neiva, E. R. (2014). Employee perception on transactional and transformational changes in a public organization. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 18(2), 118-138.).	In months
G₄ - Level of organization impact	In every organization, there are planned and unplanned changes, all of which have consequences. Therefore, it is important to measure the impact of the change (Neiva & Paz, 2012Neiva, E. R., & Paz, M. G. T. (2012). Percepção de mudança individual e organizacional: o papel das atitudes, dos valores, do poder e da capacidade organizacional. Revista Administração, 47(1), 22-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5700/rausp1023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5700/rausp1023... ).	Likert scale
		1 – None
		2 – Low
		3 – Indifferent
		4 – Reasonable
		5 – High
G₅ - Level of mobilization and involvement of the contributors.	Waterman’s (1994)Waterman, R. H. (1994). What America does right: learning from companies that put people first (6th ed.) New York: Norton. position contends that meeting the needs and expectations of both external and internal (employees) customers is equally important to an organization that concerns itself with quality.	Likert scale
		1 – Up to 10% of the contributors.
		2 – Between 10% and 30% of the contributors.
		3 – Between 30% and 60% of the contributors.
		4 – Between 60% and 80% of the contributors.
		5 – Between 80% and 100% of the contributors.
G₆ - Level of resistance of the employees/ contributors.	Regardless of the type of change and its objectives, people usually do not welcome change (Bressan & Lima, 2001Bressan, C. L., & Lima, S. M. V. (2001). Mudança Organizacional: uma introdução. In S. M. V. Lima (Ed.), Mudança Organizacional: teoria e gestão (1st ed., pp. 17-63). Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV.).	Likert scale
		1 – There is no resistance
		2 – Low level
		3 – Intermediate
		4 – High
		5 – Very high

G₇ - Given importance for hiring an external consultancy	According to Garvin (1988)Garvin, D. A. (1988). Managing quality: the strategic and competitive edge (1st ed.). New York: Free Press., it is necessary to invest time, resources, and money in search for quality, for many reasons, including environmental, safety, and competitive concerns. The quality improvement may be considered as a profitable target. Thus, the company needs to invest this time and resources in the selection and hiring of Accredited Certification Bodies (ACB), as well as consultancy and training services.	Likert scale
		1 – Low
		2 – Reasonable
		3 – Indifferent
		4 – High 5 – Extremely High

	G1	G2	G3	G4	G5	G6	G7
A1	9,000	2	6	3	1	3	2
A2	7,000	3	6	3	1	3	1
A3	15,000	4	8	2	5	3	3
A4	20,000	4	10	4	2	3	4
A5	100,000	5	18	5	3	3	5
A6	70,000	5	12	4	5	3	4
A7	3,000	3	5	2	1	2	1

Company A (small-sized company)	Company B (medium-sized company)
A1 – The 7 Traditional quality tools	A1 – The 7 Traditional quality tools
A2 – The 7 Management quality tools	A2 – The 7 Management quality tools
A3 – 5S	A3 – 5S
A4 – QFD	A4 – QFD
A5 – ISO 9001:2015 - Quality management systems - Requirements	A5 – Six sigma
A6 – Set of support standards: ISO 10014:2006 - Quality management -- Guidelines for realizing financial and economic benefits. ISO 10018:2012 - Quality management - Guidelines on people’s involvement and competence. ISO 10002:2014 – Customer satisfaction - Guidelines for complaints handling in organizations. ISO 10004:2012 - Customer satisfaction - Guidelines for monitoring and measuring. ISO 10015:1999 – Quality management – Guidelines for training.	A6 – ISO 9001:2015 - Quality management systems - Requirements
	A7 – Set of support standards: ISO 10014:2006 - Quality management -- Guidelines for realizing financial and economic benefits. ISO 10018:2012 - Quality management - Guidelines on people’s involvement and competence. ISO 10002:2014 – Customer satisfaction - Guidelines for complaints handling in organizations. ISO 10004:2012 - Customer satisfaction - Guidelines for monitoring and measuring. ISO 10015:1999 – Quality management – Guidelines for training.

Criteria	A	B
G1- Implementation cost	0.16	0.13
G2- Commitment and attitude of the manager towards change.	0.15	0.15
G3- Duration of the implementation of the change	0.12	0.12
G4- Level of organization impact	0.15	0.15
G5- Level of mobilization and involvement of the contributors.	0.15	0.15
G6- Level of resistance of the employees/ contributors.	0.15	0.15
G7- Given importance for hiring an external consultancy.	0.12	0.15

	G1	G2	G3	G4	G5	G6	G7
A1	5,000	2	4	3	4	3	3
A2	3,000	3	4	3	4	3	1
A3	10,000	4	4	3	4	3	3
A4	15,000	4	8	4	4	3	4
A5	40,000	5	12	5	5	3	4
A6	3,000	3	3	2	2	2	1

Criteria	Profile 1	Profile 2
G1	10,000	60,000
G2	2	4
G3	3 months	12 months
G4	2	4
G5	2	4
G6	2	4
G7	1	4

	Profile 1	Profile 2
C1	20,000	100,000
C2	2	4
C3	3 months	12 months
C4	2	4
C5	2	4
C6	2	4
C7	1	4

Criteria	Profile 1	Profile 2
G1	$p =$ 10,000 and $q =$ 5,000	$p =$ 10,000 and $q =$ 5,000
G2	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G3	$p =$ 6 and $q =$ 3	$p =$ 6 and $q =$ 3
G4	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G5	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G6	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G7	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0

	Profile 1	Profile 2
G1	$p =$ 15,000 and $q =$ 10,000	$p =$ 15,000 and $q =$ 10,000
G2	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G3	$p =$ 6 and $q =$ 3	$p =$ 6 and $q =$ 3
G4	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G5	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G6	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0
G7	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0	$p =$ 0 and $q =$ 0

Assignment by Alternative
Alternative	Pessimistic	Otimistic
A₁	C02	C02
A₂	C02	C02
A₃	C02	C02
A₄	C02	C02
A₅	C03	C02
A₆	C01	C01

Assignment by Alternative
Alternative	Pessimistic	Otimistic
A₁	C02	C02
A₂	C02	C02
A₃	C02	C02
A₄	C02	C02
A₅	C03	C03
A₆	C02	C02
A₇	C01	C01

c_{j} (a, b) = {\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} 0, i f g_{j} (b_{h}) - g_{j} (a) \geq p_{j} (b_{h}) \\ 1, i f g_{j} (b_{h}) - g_{j} (a) \leq q_{j} (b_{h}) \end{matrix} \\ e l s e, \frac{p_{j} (b_{h}) + g_{j} (a) - g_{j} (b_{h})}{p_{j} (b_{h}) - q_{j} (b_{h})} \end{matrix}}

d_{j} (a, b) = {\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} 0, i f g_{j} (b_{h}) - g_{j} (a) \leq p_{j} (b_{h}) \\ 1, i f g_{j} (b_{h}) - g_{j} (a) > v_{j} (b_{h}) \end{matrix} \\ e l s e, \frac{g_{j} (b_{h}) + g_{j} (a) - p_{j} (b_{h})}{v_{j} (b_{h}) - p_{j} (b_{h})} \end{matrix}}

[1] * renatamaciel0@gmail.com

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Organizational change in quality management aspects: a quantitative proposal for classification

Abstract