SUMMARY
OBJECTIVE:
This study aimed to investigate the effects of intense weightlifting training on lymphocyte and natural killer cell subgroups, which are the major cells of the immune system, in elite female weightlifters.
METHODS:
A total of 20 elite female weightlifters were evaluated using flow cytometry before training (pre-T), immediately after training (post-T), and after a 120-min rest period (rest-T).
RESULTS:
Post-T and rest-T showed significant decreases in helper T (Th) and cytotoxic T compared with pre-T (p=0.045, p<0.001 and p=0.05, p<0.001, respectively). B and natural killer cells were higher in post-T and rest-T than in pre-T. The increase in B cells was significant in pre-T/rest-T (p<0.001) but not in pre-T/post-T (p=0.122). Intense training significantly increased natural killer cells in both post-T and rest-T (p<0.001). CD56bright and CD56dim natural killer cell subgroups were significantly lower in post-T and rest-T than in pre-T (p=0.005, p=0.006 and p<0.001, p=0.004, respectively).
CONCLUSION:
This study shows that intense weightlifting alters peripheral lymphocyte and natural killer subgroup ratios, being the first investigation in this field.
KEYWORDS:
CD4; CD8; CD19; NK
INTRODUCTION
Weightlifting relies on strength, which is crucial for success11 Huebner M, Meltzer D, Ma W, Arrow H. The Masters athlete in olympic weightlifting: training, lifestyle, health challenges, and gender differences [published correction appears in PLoS One. 2021 Feb 10;16(2):e0247110]. PLoS One. 2020;15(12):e0243652. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243652
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.024...
. Regular intense training enhances power generation22 Hendrickse PW, Venckunas T, Platkevicius J, Kairaitis R, Kamandulis S, Snieckus A, et al. Endurance training-induced increase in muscle oxidative capacity without loss of muscle mass in younger and older resistance-trained men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2021;121(11):3161-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04768-4
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04768...
. Some studies show balanced exercise benefits immune cells33 Walsh NP, Gleeson M, Shephard RJ, Gleeson M, Woods JA, Bishop NC, et al. Position statement. Part one: immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2011;17:6-63. PMID: 21446352–66 Trushina ÉN, Gapparova KM, Mustafina OK, Chekhonina IuG, Nikitiuk DB, Kuznetsov VD. [Status of nutrition and cell immunity in sportsmen-weightlifters]. Vopr Pitan. 2012;81(3):92-6. PMID: 22888678. Conversely, strenuous long-term exercise harms the immune system, increasing infection risk, especially in athletes44 Barrett B, Hayney MS, Muller D, Rakel D, Ward A, Obasi CN, et al. Meditation or exercise for preventing acute respiratory infection: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Fam Med. 2012;10(4):337-46. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1376
https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1376...
–88 Shepard RJ, Shek PN. Impact of physical activity and sport on the immune system. Rev Environ Health. 1996;11(3):133-47. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh.1996.11.3.133
https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh.1996.11.3....
.
Training affects lymphocytes, with lymphocytosis observed during and immediately after exercise, returning to pre-training levels within 24 h33 Walsh NP, Gleeson M, Shephard RJ, Gleeson M, Woods JA, Bishop NC, et al. Position statement. Part one: immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2011;17:6-63. PMID: 21446352. Some studies on weightlifting athletes reported decreased lymphocyte and leukocyte values post-training99 Shaharudin S, Rahim MFA, Muhamad AS. Effects of isokinetic versus isotonic training and its cessation on total leukocytes and lymphocytes count in adolescent state-level weightlifters. Int J Prev Med. 2018;9:90. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_42_17
https://doi.org/10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_42_1...
,1010 Kaniganti US, Majumdar P. Effect of a weight lifting training session on leukocyte count and myokine (Interleukin-6) levels. JPES. 2019;19(4):2435-40. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2019.04369
https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2019.04369...
. Lymphocytes include T and B cells, while natural killer (NK) cells are divided into CD56bright and CD56dim subsets. CD56dim cells are cytotoxic, and CD56bright cells secrete cytokines1111 Zhu X, Zhu J. CD4 T helper cell subsets and related human immunological disorders. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(21):8011. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218011
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218011...
. No study investigating peripheral lymphocyte and NK subgroups in male and female weightlifting athletes was found.
This study aimed to investigate the effect of 120-min weightlifting training (90–100% load) on CD4+, CD8+, CD19+ B, CD3-CD16+56+ NK cells, and subgroups (CD56bright and CD56dim) in female weightlifters using flow cytometry.
METHODS
Participants
A total of 20 elite female weightlifters (≥18 years) who had been actively participating in national teams for the past 3 years were included. Exclusion criteria were <18 years of age, <3 years of sports experience, musculoskeletal issues, recent surgery/trauma, hematological/systemic disease, and medication affecting blood values. In addition, care was taken not to collect blood from the athletes during the menstrual period. For this purpose, the menstrual periods of the athletes were questioned and the blood required for the study was taken within 5–12 days, which is the earlier period in the menstrual cycle. The Institutional Review Board approved the study (2023/029; December 24, 2022), and written informed consent was obtained from participants.
Study design
In January 2023, 3 mL of K3 EDTA blood samples were collected three times: pre-training (pre-T; 60 min before), post-training (post-T; 10 min after), and rest period (rest-T; 120 min after) for analysis.
Complete blood count analysis
A complete blood count was performed with Cell-Dyn 1800 (Abbott Diagnostics, Abbott Park, IL, USA). White blood cell (WBC) (103/μL), neutrophil (103/μL), and lymphocyte (103/μL) counts were analyzed from each blood sample.
Flow cytometric peripheral lymphocyte and natural killer subgroup analysis
Peripheral lymphocyte and NK cell subgroup analysis involved gradient centrifugation using Ficoll-Hypaque for cell isolation. Surface staining was conducted with specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). For lymphocyte subsets, CD45, CD3, CD4, CD8, and CD19 mAbs were used, while, for NK and NK cell subsets, CD3, CD16, and CD56 mAbs were added. Following incubation and washing, cell count and analysis were performed using flow cytometry (BD Canto II) and the FACSDiva software. Absolute values were calculated using the [(WBCx1000)/% cell ratio] formula.
Training procedure
Athletes followed a 120-min training program comprising a 15-min warm-up (static flexibility, joint mobility, stretching, and balance exercises), a 90-min main training (3 sets of maximal repetitions at 90–100% load with auxiliary exercises for weightlifting movements), and a 15-min cool-down (static flexibility and stretching exercises).
Statistical analysis
Data normality was assessed with the Shapiro-Wilk test. Two-tailed tests were used with p<0.05 as the significance threshold. Mean and SEM were reported in the tables. One-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to analyze the main effects across measurement points (pre-T, post-T, and rest-T), followed by Bonferroni correction for post-hoc comparisons. Statistical analyses were performed using the open-source jamovi statistical platform (Version 1.2.1.1) [The jamovi project 2021, Sydney, Australia, Jamovi. Retrieved from https://www.jamovi.org].
RESULTS
The study included 20 female elite weightlifters with a mean age of 18.47±1.61 years. Significant training-related changes were observed in WBC, lymphocyte, neutrophil, and peripheral lymphocyte/NK cell subgroups (p<0.05) (Table 1 and Figure 1).
Complete blood count analysis results
Pre-T/post-T and pre-T/rest-T comparisons showed significant increases in WBC, neutrophil, and lymphocyte counts. The elevation in WBC count was significant in pre-T/post-T and pre-T/rest-T (p<0.001), while the change between post-T/rest-T was not significant (p=0.073). Lymphocyte count significantly increased in all three comparisons (p<0.001; p<0.001; and p=0.01). Neutrophil count significantly changed in pre-T/post-T and pre-T/rest-T (p=0.03), but not in post-T/rest-T (p=0.74) (Tables 1 and 2).
Peripheral lymphocyte subgroup analysis results
Peripheral lymphocyte subgroup analysis compared changes in CD3+CD4+ Th, CD3+CD8+ CTLs, CD19+ B, and CD16+56+ NK cells during post-T and rest-T periods with pre-T. The cells significantly decreased in post-T and rest-T periods compared with basal values, with statistical significance in pre-T/post-T and pre-T/rest-T comparisons (p=0.045 and p<0.001, respectively). The change between post-T and rest-T was also statistically significant (p<0.001). CTLs decreased in post-T and rest-T, with non-significant reductions in pre-T/post-T and pre-T/rest-T (p=1.0 and p=0.102), but with a significant change between post-T and rest-T (p<0.001). B cells significantly increased in post-T and rest-T compared with pre-T, with significant increases in pre-T/post-T, pre-T/rest-T, and post-T/rest-T (p=0.012, p<0.001, and p<0.001, respectively) (Tables 1 and 2).
Natural killer cell subgroup analysis results
NK cells significantly increased due to training, showing statistical significance in all comparisons: pre-T/post-T, pre-T/rest-T, and post-T/rest-T (p<0.001, p<0.001, and p<0.001, respectively). CD56bright cell rates decreased in post-T compared with pre-T (p=0.005) and increased in rest-T compared with pre-T (p=0.006). CD56dim cell rates decreased in post-T compared with pre-T (p=0.005) and increased in rest-T compared with pre-T (p=0.004) (Tables 1 and 2).
DISCUSSION
Intense training affects weightlifters’ immune system and its cells1212 Özen G, Atar Ö, Yurdakul HÖ, Pehlivan B, Koç H. The effect of pre-season football training on hematological parameters of well-trained young male football players. Pedagogy Phys Cult Sports. 2020;24(6):303-9.,1313 Iık B, Küççüktürk S, Yüksel MF, Boyalı E, Karaselek MA, Erdağı K. The effects of acute high intensity interval training on hematological parameters and neutrophils to lymphocyte sratio in elite taekwondo athletes according to gender. Eur J Clin Exp Med. 2022;20(3):306-15. https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8
https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8...
. This study investigated changes in immune system cells during pre-T, post-T, and rest-T in weightlifting athletes using flow cytometry. Th and CTLs decreased in post-T and rest-T, while B and NK cells increased. Limited literature exists on peripheral lymphocyte subgroups in weightlifters, making our findings valuable for comparison with other sports studies.
The immune system plays a crucial role in protecting the body from microorganisms and maintaining its health. Exercise has been reported to have both positive and negative effects on the immune system, especially with intense and long-term exercise1414 Nieman DC, Johanssen LM, Lee JW. Infectious episodes in runners before and after a road race. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1989;29(3):289-96. PMID: 2635263,1515 Nieman DC, Henson DA, Gusewitch G, Warren BJ, Dotson RC, Butterworth DE, et al. Physical activity and immune function in elderly women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;25(7):823-31. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199307000-00011
https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-1993070...
. Exercise regulates the immune system by influencing leukocytes, which are the major immune cells1616 Wang J, Liu S, Li G, Xiao J. Exercise regulates the immune system. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2020;1228:395-408. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1792-1_27
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1792-...
. Intense training generally leads to leukocytosis, but the response of leukocyte subgroups may vary1313 Iık B, Küççüktürk S, Yüksel MF, Boyalı E, Karaselek MA, Erdağı K. The effects of acute high intensity interval training on hematological parameters and neutrophils to lymphocyte sratio in elite taekwondo athletes according to gender. Eur J Clin Exp Med. 2022;20(3):306-15. https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8
https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8...
,1717 Simpson RJ, Kunz H, Agha N, Graff R. Exercise and the regulation of immune functions. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2015;135:355-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.08.001
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.08...
,1818 Simpson RJ. The effects of exercise on blood leukocyte numbers. In: Gleeson M, Bishop NC, Walsh NP, editors. Exercise immunology. New York (NY): Routledge; 2013. p. 64–105.. In our study, WBC values significantly increased from pre-T (5.6x103/μL) to post-T (6.94x103/μL) and rest-T (7.54x103/μL), aligning with literature findings. Lymphocyte count typically rises during and immediately after exercise and then returns to pre-exercise levels within 30–60 min1313 Iık B, Küççüktürk S, Yüksel MF, Boyalı E, Karaselek MA, Erdağı K. The effects of acute high intensity interval training on hematological parameters and neutrophils to lymphocyte sratio in elite taekwondo athletes according to gender. Eur J Clin Exp Med. 2022;20(3):306-15. https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8
https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8...
,1717 Simpson RJ, Kunz H, Agha N, Graff R. Exercise and the regulation of immune functions. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2015;135:355-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.08.001
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.08...
,1818 Simpson RJ. The effects of exercise on blood leukocyte numbers. In: Gleeson M, Bishop NC, Walsh NP, editors. Exercise immunology. New York (NY): Routledge; 2013. p. 64–105.. A recent meta-analysis also reported an immediate increase in total lymphocyte count after exercise, followed by regression within 1–2 h1919 Sardeli AV, Mori MA, Lord JM. Effect of exercise on acute senescent lymphocyte counts: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gerontology. 2022;68(9):961-75. https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528
https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528...
. In our study, lymphocyte count significantly increased in post-T (1.92×103/μL) and rest-T (1.81×103/μL) compared with pre-T (1.5×103/μL). However, the decrease in rest-T was not statistically significant compared with post-T. While post-training lymphocytosis aligns with the literature, the sustained elevation in the resting period after training may be specific to weightlifting, as other sports studies showed different patterns.
A meta-analysis on training-related peripheral lymphocyte subgroups indicated that Th cells returned to basal values within 1 h after exercise (p=0.74), CTL cells decreased (p=0.001), and NK cells increased above basal values (p=0.01)1919 Sardeli AV, Mori MA, Lord JM. Effect of exercise on acute senescent lymphocyte counts: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gerontology. 2022;68(9):961-75. https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528
https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528...
. Studies in the literature consistently report decreased T cell proliferation during and after exercise. Trained male athletes showed significant reductions in mitogen-stimulated T cell proliferation following increased treadmill exercise2020 Walsh NP, Gleeson M, Shephard RJ, Gleeson M, Woods JA, Bishop NC, et al. Position statement. Part one: immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2011;17:6-63. PMID: 21446352. Similar findings were observed in female athletes who underwent 2.5 h of treadmill running and cycling training2121 Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Fagoaga OR, Henson DA, Shannon M, Davis JM, et al. Immune response to two hours of rowing in elite female rowers. Int J Sports Med. 1999;20(7):476-81. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-1999-8827
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-1999-8827...
. In another study, comparing jogging at 80% VO2max for 45 min with the same exercise at 50% VO2max, lymphocyte proliferation decreased by 50 and 25%, respectively2121 Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Fagoaga OR, Henson DA, Shannon M, Davis JM, et al. Immune response to two hours of rowing in elite female rowers. Int J Sports Med. 1999;20(7):476-81. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-1999-8827
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-1999-8827...
. The changes in immune cells and recovery time after exercise are closely linked to exercise duration and intensity. In our study, Th and CTL cells decreased in the post-T period and did not return to pre-T levels during the 120-min rest-T period. Although our findings align relatively well with the literature, they contradict the data showing no return to baseline within the 120-min period. This discrepancy may be attributed to the specific sport type and intensity, highlighting the different responses of immune system cells to different sports training.
Senescent T cells theoretically undergo apoptosis, while naive T cells from the thymus enter the periphery, maintaining the peripheral lymphocyte count. Naive lymphocytes increase 1 h after exercise, and after 2 h, they transition to the periphery, restoring the lymphocyte count2222 Ross M, Ingram L, Taylor G, Malone E, Simpson RJ, West D, et al. Older men display elevated levels of senescence-associated exercise-responsive CD28null angiogenic T cells compared with younger men. Physiol Rep. 2018;6(12):e13697. https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13697
https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13697...
. Exercise intensity is believed to increase apoptosis rates in T cell subgroups, leading to decreased cell numbers, which aligns with the findings of our study2323 Navalta JW, Lyons S, Prestes J, Arnett SW, Schafer M, Sobrero GL. Exercise intensity and lymphocyte subset apoptosis. Int J Sports Med. 2013;34(3):268-73. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1312581
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1312581...
. Furthermore, our study demonstrates that the intensity of weightlifting training induces more substantial decreases in T cell subgroups, with varying recovery times for these cells.
Unlike Th cells, B cells exhibit an increased response to exercise. Limited literature is available on weightlifting athletes. Turner et al. found that B cells nearly doubled immediately after exercise in healthy non-athletes but returned to baseline within 60 min2424 Turner JE, Spielmann G, Wadley AJ, Aldred S, Simpson RJ, Campbell JP. Exercise-induced B cell mobilisation: preliminary evidence for an influx of immature cells into the bloodstream. Physiol Behav. 2016;164(Pt A):376-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.023
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.0...
. In athletes performing at maximum capacity, B cell counts doubled post-training and tripled after resting2222 Ross M, Ingram L, Taylor G, Malone E, Simpson RJ, West D, et al. Older men display elevated levels of senescence-associated exercise-responsive CD28null angiogenic T cells compared with younger men. Physiol Rep. 2018;6(12):e13697. https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13697
https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13697...
. The impact of training on B cells remains unclear in the literature. Despite varying data, the increase in B cells during post-T and rest-T periods aligns relatively well with the existing literature, suggesting that the sport type and training intensity may contribute to these differences, similar to Th cells.
The effects of exercise on NK cell subgroups are still not clear, with limited studies available. Our study revealed an overall increase in NK cell count but a decrease in CD56bright and CD56dim cells. Elite swimmers demonstrated an increase in CD56bright and a decrease in CD56dim NK subgroups2525 Rama L, Teixeira AM, Matos A, Borges G, Henriques A, Gleeson M, et al. Changes in natural killer cell subpopulations over a winter training season in elite swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(4):859-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2490-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2490-...
. NK cell responses to training vary across studies, with some reporting an increase and others a decrease1919 Sardeli AV, Mori MA, Lord JM. Effect of exercise on acute senescent lymphocyte counts: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gerontology. 2022;68(9):961-75. https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528
https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528...
,2525 Rama L, Teixeira AM, Matos A, Borges G, Henriques A, Gleeson M, et al. Changes in natural killer cell subpopulations over a winter training season in elite swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(4):859-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2490-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2490-...
. Therefore, our study contributes to understanding the impact of intense exercise on NK cell subgroups, highlighting their dynamic nature.
The decrease in immune system cells in weightlifting female athletes poses an infection risk. Unlike some sports, T cells did not fully recover within 120 min after weightlifting training. Thus, ensuring an adequate rest period, post-training can minimize the athletes’ susceptibility to potential infections.
CONCLUSION
Regular training is crucial for athletes’ success, but inadequate rest can lead to significant changes in immune system cells. While studies on immune system cells exist for various sports, none specifically focuses on weightlifting athletes. This is the first study to examine the effects of weightlifting on peripheral lymphocyte and NK cell subgroups. It revealed that the decrease in cells due to intense weightlifting training did not fully recover within 120 min of rest. Long-term follow-up studies investigating cell recovery times could greatly contribute to mitigating infection risks for athletes. Hence, this study has the potential to inform future research in this field.
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Funding: The study was supported by Necmettin Erbakan University Scientific Research Projects Coordinator for supporting this study with research project number 221218009 research project numbers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to all individuals participating in this study. We would like to thank Necmettin Erbakan University Scientific Research Projects Coordinator for supporting this study with research project number 221218009.
REFERENCES
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1Huebner M, Meltzer D, Ma W, Arrow H. The Masters athlete in olympic weightlifting: training, lifestyle, health challenges, and gender differences [published correction appears in PLoS One. 2021 Feb 10;16(2):e0247110]. PLoS One. 2020;15(12):e0243652. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243652
» https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243652 -
2Hendrickse PW, Venckunas T, Platkevicius J, Kairaitis R, Kamandulis S, Snieckus A, et al. Endurance training-induced increase in muscle oxidative capacity without loss of muscle mass in younger and older resistance-trained men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2021;121(11):3161-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04768-4
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04768-4 -
3Walsh NP, Gleeson M, Shephard RJ, Gleeson M, Woods JA, Bishop NC, et al. Position statement. Part one: immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2011;17:6-63. PMID: 21446352
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4Barrett B, Hayney MS, Muller D, Rakel D, Ward A, Obasi CN, et al. Meditation or exercise for preventing acute respiratory infection: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Fam Med. 2012;10(4):337-46. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1376
» https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1376 -
5Xiang L, Rehm KE, Marshall GD. Effects of strenuous exercise on Th1/Th2 gene expression from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells of marathon participants. Mol Immunol. 2014;60(2):129-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2014.03.004
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2014.03.004 -
6Trushina ÉN, Gapparova KM, Mustafina OK, Chekhonina IuG, Nikitiuk DB, Kuznetsov VD. [Status of nutrition and cell immunity in sportsmen-weightlifters]. Vopr Pitan. 2012;81(3):92-6. PMID: 22888678
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7Nieman DC, Johanssen LM, Lee JW, Arabatzis K. Infectious episodes in runners before and after the Los Angeles Marathon. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1990;30(3):316-28. PMID: 2266764
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8Shepard RJ, Shek PN. Impact of physical activity and sport on the immune system. Rev Environ Health. 1996;11(3):133-47. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh.1996.11.3.133
» https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh.1996.11.3.133 -
9Shaharudin S, Rahim MFA, Muhamad AS. Effects of isokinetic versus isotonic training and its cessation on total leukocytes and lymphocytes count in adolescent state-level weightlifters. Int J Prev Med. 2018;9:90. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_42_17
» https://doi.org/10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_42_17 -
10Kaniganti US, Majumdar P. Effect of a weight lifting training session on leukocyte count and myokine (Interleukin-6) levels. JPES. 2019;19(4):2435-40. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2019.04369
» https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2019.04369 -
11Zhu X, Zhu J. CD4 T helper cell subsets and related human immunological disorders. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(21):8011. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218011
» https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218011 -
12Özen G, Atar Ö, Yurdakul HÖ, Pehlivan B, Koç H. The effect of pre-season football training on hematological parameters of well-trained young male football players. Pedagogy Phys Cult Sports. 2020;24(6):303-9.
-
13Iık B, Küççüktürk S, Yüksel MF, Boyalı E, Karaselek MA, Erdağı K. The effects of acute high intensity interval training on hematological parameters and neutrophils to lymphocyte sratio in elite taekwondo athletes according to gender. Eur J Clin Exp Med. 2022;20(3):306-15. https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8
» https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2022.3.8 -
14Nieman DC, Johanssen LM, Lee JW. Infectious episodes in runners before and after a road race. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1989;29(3):289-96. PMID: 2635263
-
15Nieman DC, Henson DA, Gusewitch G, Warren BJ, Dotson RC, Butterworth DE, et al. Physical activity and immune function in elderly women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;25(7):823-31. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199307000-00011
» https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199307000-00011 -
16Wang J, Liu S, Li G, Xiao J. Exercise regulates the immune system. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2020;1228:395-408. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1792-1_27
» https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1792-1_27 -
17Simpson RJ, Kunz H, Agha N, Graff R. Exercise and the regulation of immune functions. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2015;135:355-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.08.001
» https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.08.001 -
18Simpson RJ. The effects of exercise on blood leukocyte numbers. In: Gleeson M, Bishop NC, Walsh NP, editors. Exercise immunology. New York (NY): Routledge; 2013. p. 64–105.
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19Sardeli AV, Mori MA, Lord JM. Effect of exercise on acute senescent lymphocyte counts: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gerontology. 2022;68(9):961-75. https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528
» https://doi.org/10.1159/000520528 -
20Walsh NP, Gleeson M, Shephard RJ, Gleeson M, Woods JA, Bishop NC, et al. Position statement. Part one: immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2011;17:6-63. PMID: 21446352
-
21Nieman DC, Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Fagoaga OR, Henson DA, Shannon M, Davis JM, et al. Immune response to two hours of rowing in elite female rowers. Int J Sports Med. 1999;20(7):476-81. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-1999-8827
» https://doi.org/10.1055/s-1999-8827 -
22Ross M, Ingram L, Taylor G, Malone E, Simpson RJ, West D, et al. Older men display elevated levels of senescence-associated exercise-responsive CD28null angiogenic T cells compared with younger men. Physiol Rep. 2018;6(12):e13697. https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13697
» https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.13697 -
23Navalta JW, Lyons S, Prestes J, Arnett SW, Schafer M, Sobrero GL. Exercise intensity and lymphocyte subset apoptosis. Int J Sports Med. 2013;34(3):268-73. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1312581
» https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1312581 -
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Publication Dates
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Publication in this collection
18 Dec 2023 -
Date of issue
2024
History
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Received
28 Aug 2023 -
Accepted
28 Aug 2023