Phosphorus use efficiency in irrigated sesame cultivars under semi-arid conditions¹

Eficiência do uso de fósforo de cultivares de gergelim irrigado em condições semiáridas

ABSTRACT

Investigating phosphorus uptake and use efficiency in sesame cultivation is essential for effective nutrient management and promoting agricultural practices adapted to the specific characteristics of semi-arid regions. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the response of different irrigated sesame cultivars under semi-arid conditions to P application rates, with emphasis on phosphorus use efficiency. The study consisted of two experiments conducted during the 2021 and 2022 growing seasons. The experiment was conducted in randomized complete blocks design, with four replications, and treatments arranged in split plots. Main plots received five phosphorus doses (0, 60, 120, 180, and 240 kg ha^-1 of P₂O₅), and subplots contained four sesame cultivars (CNPA G2, CNPA G3, CNPA G4, and BRS Seda). Evaluated variables included P content and accumulation in stems, leaves, capsules, and the above-ground biomass of sesame; residual soil P after sesame harvest; and agronomic, physiological, apparent recovery and utilization efficiencies of P. Application of the 240 kg ha^-1 P₂O₅ dose resulted in maximum values of P content and accumulation in different plant parts and residual soil P. Agronomic, physiological, apparent recovery, and utilization efficiencies of P reached their maximum values at P₂O₅ dose of 60 kg ha^-1. The CNPA G3 and CNPA G4 cultivars showed the highest efficiencies.

Key words:
Sesamum indicum L.; phosphorus fertilization; nutrient-use efficiency; residual phosphorus

HIGHLIGHTS:

Application of 120 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅ increased sesame yield and phosphorus accumulation in plant organs.

P doses increased sesame P uptake and residual soil P in Ultisols.

Sesame cultivars CNPA G3 and CNPA G4 showed high P-use efficiency at 60 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅ under irrigation.

RESUMO

Investigar a absorção e a eficiência do uso do fósforo (P) no cultivo do gergelim é fundamental para uma gestão eficaz desse nutriente, além de ser importante para a promoção de práticas agrícolas adaptadas às características específicas da região semiárida. Portanto, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a resposta de diferentes cultivares de gergelim irrigado sob condições semiáridas a doses de fósforo, com ênfase na eficiência de uso do fósforo. Foram conduzidos dois experimentos, um em 2021 (1ª safra) e outro em 2022 (2ª safra). O delineamento experimental utilizado foi em blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições, com tratamentos arranjados em parcelas subdivididas. Nas parcelas, foram distribuídas cinco doses de fósforo (0, 60, 120, 180 e 240 kg ha^-1 de P₂O₅) e nas subparcelas, quatro cultivares de gergelim (CNPA G2, CNPA G3, CNPA G4 e BRS Seda). Foram avaliados: teor de P e acúmulo de P no caule, nas folhas, nas cápsulas e na biomassa de parte aérea do gergelim; P residual no solo após a colheita do gergelim; eficiências agronômica, fisiológica, aparente recuperação e eficiência de utilização de P. A aplicação da dose de 240 kg ha^-1 de P₂O₅ resultou em valores máximos no teor e acúmulo de P nas diferentes partes da planta e do P residual no solo. As eficiências, agronômica, fisiológica, aparente de recuperação e de utilização de P atingiram seus valores máximos na dose de 60 kg ha^-1 de P₂O₅. As cultivares CNPA G3 e CNPA G4 alcançaram as maiores eficiências.

Palavras-chave:
Sesamum indicum L.; adubação fosfatada; eficiência nutricional; fósforo residual

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1
Geographic location of the experiment, Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte state, Brazil

The cultivation of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) stands out for its economic potential, driven by the commercial importance of its seeds in the food and oil industries (Sanni et al., 2024). In Brazil, sesame production has expanded rapidly in recent years, with the cultivated area increasing from 53,000 ha in the 2018/2019 growing season to 175,000 ha in 2019/2020, representing a 230% increase in a single year (EMBRAPA, 2022). Over the same period, grain production rose by 132%, from 41.3 to 95.8 thousand tons. During the last decade, national production increased markedly, reaching levels nearly twenty times higher than those recorded in 2010, when approximately 5,000 tons were produced (EMBRAPA, 2025). This expansion highlights the high yield potential of the crop.

In Brazil, sesame cultivation has been especially prominent in the semi-arid region of the Northeast, where studies have demonstrated the crop’s yield potential under different management conditions. Genotype evaluations conducted in the region have shown favorable agronomic responses (Viana et al., 2018), as well as efficient nitrogen use under semi-arid conditions (Santos et al., 2021). Nutrient uptake by sesame cultivars grown in the semi-arid region of Rio Grande do Norte was reported by Ribeiro et al. (2019), while studies carried out in Ceará assessed crop yield under different irrigation regimes (Mesquita et al., 2013). The climatic conditions of the semi-arid Northeast, characterized by high temperatures and elevated aridity indices (Sparacino et al., 2021; Sales et al., 2024), further emphasize the need for studies evaluating performance of sesame in this environment.

In mineral nutrition, phosphorus (P) is an essential element for plant metabolism, playing a key role in energy transfer, membrane integrity, and root system development (Vasconcelos et al., 2022). Despite its importance, P is frequently one of the most limiting nutrients for crop yield in tropical soils due to its low availability, strong adsorption to soil colloids, and limited mobility in the soil solution (Vieira et al., 2021; Vinha et al., 2021). These characteristics reduce phosphorus uptake efficiency by plants and often require the application of high rates of phosphate fertilizers to meet crop nutritional demands (Cordell & White, 2015; Silva et al., 2022).

Plants have developed several adaptive mechanisms to enhance phosphorus acquisition and use efficiency under conditions of low nutrient availability. These mechanisms include morphological changes in the root system, such as increased root length, branching, and surface area; physiological adjustments, including increased expression and activity of phosphorus transporters; and biochemical strategies, such as the exudation of organic acids and phosphatases that enhance phosphorus solubilization and availability in the rhizosphere (Ramaekers et al., 2010; Lynch, 2011; Richardson et al., 2011). In addition, phosphorus use efficiency exhibits genotypic variation associated with specific genetic traits, allowing certain cultivars to maintain greater biomass production and yield even under limited phosphorus availability (Bera et al., 2018).

Considering the finite nature of phosphate rock reserves and the environmental risks associated with excessive use of phosphate fertilizers (Cordell et al., 2009; Withers et al., 2018), improving phosphorus use efficiency has become a key component of sustainable agricultural systems (Richardson et al., 2011). In this context, understanding how different sesame cultivars respond to phosphorus fertilization and utilize this nutrient efficiently is essential to optimize fertilizer management. Therefore, this study evaluated the response of different irrigated sesame cultivars under semi-arid conditions to phosphorus application rates, with emphasis on phosphorus use efficiency.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Two experiments were carried out at the Rafael Fernandes Experimental Farm, part of the Federal Rural University of the Semi-Arid Region (UFERSA), located in Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte state, Brazil, at 5° 03’ 32” S latitude, 37° 23’ 47” W longitude, and 80 m above sea level ( 1). According to the Köppen climate classification, the region has a BSh type climate, characterized as hot semi-arid tropical, with an average temperature of 27.4 °C and irregular annual rainfall, with an average of 673.9 mm (Alvares et al., 2013).

The first crop was conducted in the 2021 growing season from August to November, and the second from August to November 2022. Both experiments were carried out during the dry season, making irrigation essential for sesame cultivation and yield. Mean values of air temperature, relative air humidity, solar radiation, and accumulated rainfall during the experimental periods are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2
Monthly mean air temperature (A), relative air humidity (B), solar radiation (C) and accumulated rainfall (D) during sesame cultivation in the first (2021) and second (2022) growing seasons

The experiment was conducted using a randomized complete block design with four replications, arranged in a split-plot scheme. Five phosphorus rates (0, 60, 120, 180, and 240 kg ha^-1 of P₂O₅) were applied to the main plots, based on regional fertilization recommendations and previous studies on sesame cultivation under semi-arid conditions (Ribeiro et al., 2019). The sesame cultivars CNPA G2, CNPA G3, CNPA G4, and BRS Seda were grown in the subplots. These cultivars are recommended for Northeastern Brazil and were developed by the Sesame Breeding Program of Embrapa Algodão.

Each plot contained four rows, spanning a total area of 7.2 m² (2.4 × 3.0 m), with row spacing of 0.60 m and plant spacing of 0.30 m. Two plants per hole resulted in 32 plants per experimental unit, focusing on the two central rows and excluding border plants. The experiments covered a total area of 567.6 m² with a density of 111,111 plants ha^-1. Soil preparation involved plowing and harrowing. The soil of the experimental area was classified as an Ultisol (Soil Survey Staff, 2022), corresponding to an Argissolo in the Brazilian soil classification system (Santos et al., 2025). Prior to offsetting up the experiments, soil samples were collected from the 0-20 cm layer in each plot and combined to form a composite sample for each growing season to determine the soil physical and chemical properties (Table 1) related to fertility and salinity, following the methodology proposed by Teixeira et al. (2017).

Table 1
Physical and chemical soil properties related to fertility and salinity in the experimental area in the two growing seasons (2021 and 2022)

Season	pH	ECse	OM	P___________________________	K+	Na+	Ca2+	Mg2+	Al3+	H++Al3+	SB	T	V	Sand	Silt	Clay
	water	dS m-1	g kg-1	mg dm-3	cmolc dm-3								___________________________ %	g kg-1
2021	6.70	0.06	3.52	2.9	0.17	0.04	0.90	0.80	0.0	0.83	1.91	2.74	70	910	30	60
2022	7.00	0.05	2.20	5.1	0.15	0.04	1.30	1.10	0.0	0.16	2.59	2.75	94	910	30	60

Sesame was sown directly into planting holes at a depth of 2 cm, accompanied by basal fertilization based on sesame cultivation recommendations (Gomes & Coutinho, 2008) and soil fertility analysis. Phosphorus was applied as MAP (61% of P₂O₅ and 12% of N) at rates of 0, 60, 120, 180, and 240 kg ha^-1 of P₂O₅ as basal fertilization. Urea (46% N) served as the nitrogen source and was split into two topdressing applications. Potassium was supplied as KCl (60% K₂O) during the second topdressing (Gomes & Coutinho, 2008). All fertilizer applications were carried out via fertigation.

Drip irrigation was adopted to apply water daily based on crop evapotranspiration (ETc), estimated using crop coefficient (Kc) values recommended for sesame: 0.35 during the initial growth stage, 1.10 in the mid-season, and 0.25 in the late season (Allen et al., 1998). Thinning was performed ten days after emergence, leaving two plants per hole. Cultural practices and phytosanitary controls were maintained throughout the growth cycle (Cruz et al., 2019). Sesame was harvested manually 100 days after sowing (DAS), once the plants displayed yellowing capsules and initial signs of opening. After cutting, the plants were bundled and dried for 15 days. The dried material was then threshed, and the seeds were cleaned with a seed cleaner blower (Eagri 2757 model) before being weighed on a balance.

Seed yield was determined by weighing all seeds from the plants in the observation area on a digital scale, adjusting for standard moisture content of 6% (Table 2).

Table 2
Seed yield of sesame cultivars fertilized with phosphorus doses in the first (2021) and second (2022) growing season

P2O5 doses kg ha-1	Average sesame seed yield (kg ha-1)
	Cultivar	First growing season (2021)	Second growing season (2022)
0	CNPA G2	633.89	1,449.68
	CNPA G3	641.90	1,822.66
	CNPA G4	537.32	1,924.11
	BRS Seda	613.94	1,949.66
60	CNPA G2	1,249.89	1,822.66
	CNPA G3	1,364.75	2,671.61
	CNPA G4	1,428.16	2,567.15
	BRS Seda	1,228.64	2,241.60
120	CNPA G2	1,551.4	2,452.88
	CNPA G3	1,654.94	2,374.60
	CNPA G4	1,647.88	2,376.26
	BRS Seda	1,474.27	2,545.04
180	CNPA G2	1,403.35	2,482.16
	CNPA G3	1,671.13	2,385.40
	CNPA G4	1,310.24	2,329.20
	BRS Seda	1,310.24	2,424.00
240	CNPA G2	1,471.45	2,177.94
	CNPA G3	1,724.47	2,283.13
	CNPA G4	1,589.77	2,126.41
	BRS Seda	1,255.05	2,403.99

The determination of phosphorus content and accumulation in different plant parts (stem, leaves, and capsules), as well as the analysis of residual soil phosphorus in the experimental subplots, was conducted after harvest. To quantify phosphorus content in each plant part (leaves, stem, and capsules), in g kg^-1 of dry matter, chemical analyses were performed on extracts obtained through sulfuric acid digestion, with phosphorus quantified by spectrophotometry (Silva, 2009). Phosphorus accumulation in each plant part was calculated by multiplying the nutrient concentration by the corresponding dry mass of the respective organ (stem, leaves, capsules, and shoot). Total phosphorus accumulation in the aerial part was determined by summing the accumulated values across the different fractions (Malavolta, 1989). Residual soil phosphorus in the subplots was quantified after harvesting the sesame plants and collecting soil samples.

Efficiency indices were estimated using a methodology adapted from Fageria (1998). Agronomic efficiency (AE) was calculated as the ratio between seed yield and the amount of P₂O₅ applied, expressed in kg kg^-1, Eq. 1:

(1) $$\mathrm{AE}=(\mathrm{SWWiP}-\mathrm{SWWoP})/\mathrm{QPa}$$

where:

SWWiP - seed yield of sesame with nutrient application (kg);

SWWoP - seed yield of sesame without nutrient application (kg); and,

QPa - quantity of P₂O₅ applied (kg).

Physiological efficiency (PE) of sesame was estimated as the ratio between the above-ground biomass and phosphorus accumulation in the above-ground biomass, expressed in kg kg^-1, Eq. 2:

(2) $$\mathrm{PE}=(\mathrm{BYWiP}-\mathrm{BYWoP})/(\mathrm{PAWiP}-\mathrm{PAWoP})$$

where:

BYWiP - total biological yield (stem, leaves, and capsules) with nutrient application;

BYWoP - total biological yield (stem, leaves, and capsules) without nutrient application;

PAWiP - nutrient accumulation in the above-ground biomass (stem, leaves, and capsules) with nutrient application; and,

PAWoP - nutrient accumulation in the above-ground biomass (stem, leaves, and capsules) without nutrient application.

Agrophysiological efficiency (APE) was estimated as the ratio between sesame seed yield and phosphorus accumulation in the above-ground biomass, expressed in kg kg^-1, Eq. 3:

(3) $$\mathrm{APE}=(\mathrm{SYWiP}-\mathrm{SYWoP})/(\mathrm{PAWiP}-\mathrm{PAWoP})$$

where:

SYWiP - sesame seed yield with phosphorus application;

SYWoP - sesame seed yield without phosphorus application;

PAWiP - nutrient accumulation in the above-ground biomass (stem, leaves, and capsules) with phosphorus application; and,

PAWoP - nutrient accumulation in the above-ground biomass (stem, leaves, and capsules) without phosphorus application.

Apparent phosphorus recovery efficiency (APRE) was estimated as the difference between nutrient accumulation in the above-ground biomass and the quantity of phosphorus applied, expressed in %, Eq. 4:

(4) $$\mathrm{APRE}=\left(\frac{\mathrm{PAWiP}-\mathrm{PAWoP}}{\mathrm{QPa}}\right)\times 100$$

where:

PAWiP - phosphorus accumulation in the above-ground biomass (stem, leaves, and capsules) with phosphorus application;

PAWoP - phosphorus accumulation in the above-ground biomass (stem, leaves, and capsules) without phosphorus application; and,

QPa - quantity of phosphorus applied (kg).

The phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) was defined as the ratio between physiological efficiency (PE) and apparent phosphorus recovery efficiency (APRE), expressed in kg kg^-1. Eq. 5:

(5) $$\mathrm{PUE}=\mathrm{PE}\times \mathrm{APRE}$$

The data were initially analyzed using analysis of variance, with each growing season analyzed separately. After verifying the homogeneity of residual variances, a joint analysis of variance was performed, including the growing season as a source of variation, along with phosphorus rates, cultivars, and their interactions. When significant effects were observed, the means for the qualitative factor (cultivars) were compared using Tukey’s test at 5% significance level. In contrast, the quantitative factor (phosphorus rates) was evaluated through polynomial regression. The analysis of variance and means comparisons were performed using the SISVAR^® program v. 5.7 (Ferreira, 2019), and the regression response curves were fitted using SigmaPlot version 12.5.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Residual soil phosphorus increased linearly with P application rates in both growing seasons (Figure 3). However, the accumulation rate was greater in the second season, highlighting a strong cumulative effect of continuous P inputs. At the maximum applied dose (240 kg ha⁻¹ of P₂O₅), the residual P reached 18.08 mg dm^-3 in the second season, compared to 5.64 mg dm^-3 in the first. This greater soil P availability likely drove the higher phosphorus accumulation observed in the sesame crop during the second season.

Figure 3
Residual soil phosphorus levels after sesame harvest, following phosphorus fertilization at different doses, during the first season (2021) and second season (2022)

The higher phosphorus availability can be partly attributed to rainfall during the early development and flowering stages of sesame in the second season (Figure 2). Soil moisture from the rains likely influenced phosphorus availability directly (Takahashi et al., 2016; Mahmood et al., 2025). This leads to greater phosphorus availability near the roots, enhancing nutrient uptake and consequently promoting plant growth and yield (Gemenet et al., 2016).

In the second season, soil pH was closer to neutrality, around 7.0. Soil pH strongly regulates phosphorus availability, with near-neutral conditions generally favoring greater P availability, particularly when soluble phosphate fertilizers are applied. This occurs because increasing soil pH reduces the positive surface charge of iron and aluminum oxides, decreasing phosphate adsorption and enhancing P mobility in the soil solution (Penn & Camberato, 2019; Solangi et al., 2023).

The phosphorus content in different plant organs responded significantly to P application rates, varying across seasons (Figure 4). In the first season, phosphorus accumulation reached 0.93 g kg⁻¹ at the estimated dose of 234.38 kg ha⁻¹ of P₂O₅ for stems, and 1.47 g kg⁻¹ at 182.93 kg ha⁻¹ for leaves (Figures 4A and B). During the second season, the P content in these organs increased linearly, reaching 1.15 g kg⁻¹ in the stem and 2.87 g kg⁻¹ in the leaves at the highest applied dose (240 kg ha⁻¹).

Figure 4
Phosphorus content in the stem (A), leaf (B), capsule (C), and shoot (D) of sesame fertilized with phosphorus doses in the 2021 and 2022 growing seasons

For capsules and shoot, P content in the first season increased linearly, reaching 3.06 g kg⁻¹ in capsules and 5.50 g kg⁻¹ in the shoot at the maximum dose of 240 kg ha⁻¹ (Figures 4C and D). In the second growing season, the highest P content reached 4.95 g kg⁻¹ in capsules at the estimated dose of 163.33 kg ha⁻¹, and 9.93 g kg⁻¹ in the shoot at 230.00 kg ha⁻¹. Overall, phosphorus concentrations in all plant parts were notably higher in the second growing season. This greater phosphorus uptake indicates a more pronounced response to fertilization, likely driven by the cumulative effect of continuous P inputs and improved soil and climatic conditions during the second cycle (Figure 2 and Table 1).

Phosphorus accumulation in the different plant organs responded significantly to P application rates, with distinct patterns across the two growing seasons (Figure 5). In the first season, P accumulation in the stem, capsules, and shoot increased linearly with the P rates. Nutrient accumulation reached 2.55 g per plant in the stem (at 180 kg ha⁻¹ of P₂O₅), while the values in capsules and shoots reached 9.13 g and 30.91 g per plant, respectively, at the highest applied dose of 240 kg ha⁻¹. In contrast, leaf P accumulation during the first season did not respond to the varying P doses, averaging 0.63 g per plant across all fertilization rates (Figure 5B).

Figure 5
Phosphorus accumulation in stem (A), leaf (B), capsule (C), and shoot (D) of sesame as affected by phosphorus fertilization rates, during the first (2021) and second (2022) growing season

During the second season, phosphorus accumulation reached 4.29 g per plant in the stem at the estimated dose of 170.00 kg ha⁻¹ of P₂O₅, and 5.24 g per plant in the leaves at 160.06 kg ha⁻¹ (Figures 5A and B). For the reproductive and total biomass, the highest accumulation was 23.51 g per plant in capsules at the dose of 135.00 kg ha⁻¹, and 98.20 g per plant in the total shoot at 146.54 kg ha⁻¹ (Figures 5C and D).

The greater accumulation observed in the second growing season indicates higher phosphorus availability and plant uptake. Overall, these results demonstrate that phosphorus fertilization heavily influences the accumulation and distribution of P among plant organs. The more pronounced response in the second season suggests seasonal variations, possibly associated with differences in environmental growing conditions and the cumulative effect of continuous P inputs (Lambers, 2022).

Soil phosphorus cycling and bioavailability are influenced by soil water availability. Studies based on natural precipitation gradients indicate that variations in soil moisture regulate P transformations, adsorption dynamics, and its availability to plants (Hu et al., 2016; Takahashi et al., 2016; Mishra et al., 2023; Mahmood et al., 2025). In this context, the higher residual soil phosphorus observed in the second growing season likely contributed to greater P availability in the soil solution, particularly under improved moisture conditions, enhancing phosphorus uptake and accumulation in sesame. This interaction between residual P and soil moisture may explain the differences in phosphorus content and accumulation between growing cycles.

In the first growing season, agronomic efficiency decreased linearly with increasing phosphorus application (Figure 6A). Efficiency was highest at the lowest applied rate of 60 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅ (11.85 kg kg⁻¹) and progressively declined to 3.76 kg kg⁻¹ at the highest dose of 240 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅. This corresponds to approximately 215% greater efficiency at the lowest rate than at the highest, reinforcing the inverse relationship between phosphorus supply and agronomic efficiency.

Figure 6
Agronomic efficiency of sesame cultivars fertilized with different phosphorus doses during the first (A) and second (B) growing seasons

A similar linear decline in agronomic efficiency with increasing phosphorus doses was observed for all sesame cultivars in the second growing season (Figure 6B). Consequently, the maximum agronomic efficiency for all genotypes was recorded at the lowest application rate (60 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅). At this rate, CNPA G2 and CNPA G3 showed the highest agronomic efficiencies, whereas CNPA G4 had intermediate values, and BRS Seda exhibited the lowest efficiency. As fertilizer rates increased, the differences among cultivars tended to decrease. At 120 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅, CNPA G2 maintained the highest efficiency, differing significantly from the other cultivars. At 180 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅, CNPA G2 remained superior, CNPA G3 and BRS Seda showed intermediate performance, and CNPA G4 had the lowest efficiency. No significant differences among cultivars were observed at the highest rate (240 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅).

Among the cultivars, CNPA G4 showed the highest agronomic efficiency (8.20 kg kg^-1), although it did not differ significantly from CNPA G3 (7.68 kg kg^-1), followed by CNPA G2 (6.42 kg kg^-1); the cultivar BRS Seda had the lowest agronomic efficiency (5.87 kg kg^-1) and did not differ significantly from CNPA G2 (Table 3).

Table 3
Agronomic efficiency of phosphorus use by sesame cultivars fertilized with phosphorus doses during the first growing season

Cultivars	AE (kg kg-1)
CNPA G2	6.42 ± 0.38 bc
CNPA G3	7.68 ± 0.38 ab
CNPA G4	8.20 ± 0.38 a
BRS Seda	5.87 ± 0.38 c

The superior performance of CNPA G4 and CNPA G3 may be associated with cultivar-specific traits that enhance phosphorus acquisition and utilization, including a more efficient root system, greater expression of high-affinity phosphorus transporters, increased release of organic acids or phosphatases in the rhizosphere, and improved phosphorus use efficiency (Lambers, 2022; Chen et al., 2023; Qetrani et al., 2025). These differences among cultivars emphasize the importance of genotype selection to optimize phosphorus use, particularly under semi-arid conditions.

The observation of higher agronomic efficiency at the lowest phosphorus dose can be attributed to two factors. First, it aligns with the law of diminishing returns, which suggests that as nutrient doses increase, crop yield response tends to progressively decrease (Hopkins, 2015; Oliveira et al., 2022). Second, it is possible that higher phosphorus doses approach or exceed the crop’s saturation point or nutrient requirement for optimal yield, such as seed yield (Han et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023). Additional phosphorus application may not result in proportional yield gains, leading to reduced agronomic efficiency due to saturation of plant phosphorus demand and increased soil P fixation.

These observations are consistent with the effect of phosphorus availability on crop yield, as reported by Alvarez et al. (2002), indicating that plants tend to use phosphorus more efficiently under low P availability. This response is associated with the activation of physiological and molecular mechanisms that enhance phosphorus acquisition and internal utilization. These adaptive responses enable plants to maximize biomass production per unit of absorbed phosphorus, resulting in higher agronomic efficiency under reduced phosphorus supply (Paz-Ares et al., 2022).

Physiological efficiency of sesame plants showed no significant differences in response to the studied factors in both the first and the second seasons. The lack of variation in physiological efficiency may be related to the cultivars’ adaptability to different edaphoclimatic conditions, allowing plants to maintain similar physiological efficiency. The plants can adjust their physiological processes to optimize the use of available phosphorus, sustaining biomass production proportional to the amount of phosphorus absorbed (Han et al., 2022; Paz-Ares et al., 2022).

Agrophysiological efficiency decreased linearly with increasing phosphorus application rates in the first growing season (Figure 7), indicating that lower fertilizer doses promoted more efficient internal utilization of absorbed phosphorus. The highest efficiency was observed at 60 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅ (85.87 kg kg⁻¹), approximately 123% higher than that recorded at 180 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅ (38.44 kg kg⁻¹) (Figure 7).

Figure 7
Agrophysiological efficiency of sesame cultivars fertilized with different phosphorus doses during the first growing season

This higher efficiency may be attributed to a better synchronization between plant growth and phosphorus availability, resulting in more effective allocation of phosphorus to reproductive structures and improved seed production per unit of absorbed phosphorus. Such responses are commonly associated with enhanced internal phosphorus-use efficiency and efficient P remobilization from vegetative to reproductive organs (Irfan et al., 2020; Han et al., 2022; Veneklaas, 2022).

Apparent phosphorus recovery efficiency (APRE) decreased linearly with increasing P₂O₅ application rates in both growing seasons (Figure 8), indicating reduced recovery of applied phosphorus at higher fertilizer levels. The highest efficiencies were recorded at the lowest dose (60 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅), with values of 17.71% in the first season and 66.75% in the second, representing an approximately 277% increase in recovery efficiency. Overall, the higher apparent phosphorus recovery efficiency observed in the second growing season indicates a greater capacity of the plants to absorb and utilize the applied phosphorus compared to the first season (Figure 8).

Figure 8
Apparent phosphorus recovery efficiency of sesame cultivars fertilized with different phosphorus doses during the first (2021) and second (2022) growing seasons

Phosphorus dynamics in the soil-plant system is strongly influenced by soil moisture and rainfall distribution, since water enhances phosphorus solubilization and diffusion in the soil solution, increasing its availability for root uptake (Chtouki et al., 2022; Lambers et al., 2022). Therefore, the greater APRE in the second season may be related not only to increased immediate P availability but also to enhanced mobilization of residual soil phosphorus, favored by higher moisture during the period (Figure 2).

Phosphorus utilization efficiency decreased linearly with increasing P₂O₅ application rates in both growing seasons (Figure 9), although the overall values were similar between seasons. The highest efficiencies were recorded at the lowest dose (60 kg ha⁻¹ P₂O₅), reaching 23.23 kg kg⁻¹ in the first season and 25.40 kg kg⁻¹ in the second. This decline with increasing fertilizer rates indicates that plants used absorbed phosphorus more efficiently under lower nutrient supply.

Figure 9
Phosphorus utilization efficiency of sesame cultivars fertilized with different phosphorus doses during the first (2021) and second (2022) growing seasons

Such a pattern is consistent with plant adaptive responses to limited phosphorus availability, in which physiological adjustments enhance internal nutrient utilization, including optimized P allocation and more efficient participation in photosynthetic and metabolic processes (Roychowdhury et al., 2023; Puga et al., 2024). In contrast, higher P availability may promote luxury consumption, where phosphorus uptake exceeds metabolic demand and results in reduced utilization efficiency (Penn et al., 2022). Together, these results emphasize that moderate phosphorus supply favors more efficient nutrient use, reinforcing the importance of balanced fertilization strategies.

Significant differences in phosphorus utilization efficiency among cultivars were observed only during the first growing season. CNPA G4 showed the highest utilization efficiency (25.84 kg kg⁻¹), although it did not differ statistically from CNPA G3 (18.29 kg kg⁻¹). In contrast, CNPA G2 (12.72 kg kg⁻¹) and BRS Seda (8.41 kg kg⁻¹) exhibited the lowest efficiencies and did not differ significantly from each other and CNPA G3 (Table 4).

Table 4
Phosphorus utilization efficiency of sesame cultivars fertilized with phosphorus doses during the first growing season (2021)

Cultivars	UE (kg kg-1)
CNPA G2	12.72 ± 2.60 b
CNPA G3	18.29 ± 2.60 ab
CNPA G4	25.84 ± 2.60 a
BRS Seda	8.41 ± 2.60 b

The higher seed yield observed in the second growing season (Table 2) may be related to phosphorus use efficiency indices. When plants exhibit greater nutrient-use efficiency, they optimize growth and production. Differences in utilization efficiency among cultivars can be explained by physiological, morphological, and molecular mechanisms that enhance phosphorus acquisition and use (Vasconcelos et al., 2022). More efficient cultivars generally have a more extensive and exploratory root system, with greater root length and surface area, as well as higher root hair density, which improves phosphorus uptake from the soil (Lynch, 2022). Additionally, these cultivars may exhibit greater exudation of organic acids and phosphatases, which mobilize soil-bound phosphorus and increase its availability (Han et al., 2022; Ibrahim et al., 2022; Puga et al., 2024). At the physiological level, efficient cultivars usually show enhanced internal phosphorus remobilization from vegetative tissues to reproductive organs (Han et al., 2022; Veneklaas, 2022).

At the molecular level, genetic differences in the expression of high-affinity phosphate transporters and regulators of phosphorus deficiency responses may lead to variable capacities for phosphorus uptake and utilization (Ramaekers et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2023). Cultivars that more strongly activate these genes under low phosphorus conditions may maintain higher growth and yield, which explains their higher utilization efficiency (Ma et al., 2024).

Therefore, the higher seed yield in the second season may be partially attributed to improved phosphorus utilization and recovery in sesame plants. The differences observed among cultivars may result from root morphology, physiological adjustments, and genetic regulation of phosphorus acquisition and utilization (Wang et al., 2024). These results indicate that optimizing phosphorus availability and use is essential to increase crop yield.

A study by Oliveira et al. (2022) investigated phosphorus use efficiency in different sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) cultivars, reporting a decline in efficiency indices as phosphorus doses increased. The lowest dose applied, 50 kg ha^-1 of P₂O₅, was the most effective in achieving the highest efficiency indices for the cultivars, particularly during the 2016 season. Similarly, Coêlho et al. (2022) studied nitrogen use efficiency in sunflower and observed a trend of decreasing efficiency as nitrogen doses increased. These studies indicate that increasing nutrient doses does not always translate into higher efficiency, especially when the plant has already reached its maximum response to the nutrient, making additional applications economically and agronomically inefficient.

The results of Tsige et al. (2023) demonstrated that the efficiency of absorption and use of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium was strongly influenced by the rate of mineral fertilizer application. The lowest applied doses, specifically 23 kg ha^-1 of N, 46 kg ha^-1 of P₂O₅, and 30 kg ha^-1 of K₂O, were the most effective in providing the highest agronomic, physiological, agrophysiological, recovery, and utilization efficiencies of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for Vicia faba L. across both growing seasons. These findings align with the present study, in which agronomic, agrophysiological, apparent recovery, and utilization efficiencies of phosphorus reached their peak at the lowest dose of 60 kg ha^-1 of P₂O₅. This consistency reinforces the importance of applying appropriate fertilizer rates to optimize crop yield and nutrient use efficiency in agricultural production.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The application of 240 kg ha⁻¹ of P₂O₅ increased phosphorus content and accumulation in plant organs and resulted in the highest residual phosphorus levels in the soil in both growing seasons.

2. Phosphorus use efficiency indices reached their highest values at the lowest studied dose (60 kg ha^-1 of P₂O₅), indicating that lower phosphorus rates provided the best nutrient-use response.

3. The CNPA G3 and CNPA G4 cultivars exhibited the highest agronomic efficiency and phosphorus use efficiency, indicating a superior capacity to convert phosphorus into biomass and seed yield.

4. From a practical standpoint, the results highlight that phosphorus management under semi-arid conditions should prioritize efficiency, aiming to reduce fertilizer costs and environmental impacts while maintaining high yields. Future research should validate these findings through long-term field trials, root system characterization, and evaluation of residual phosphorus availability in subsequent crops.

• 1
  Research developed at Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Mossoró, RN, Brazil.
• • Ref 302573
• Financing statement:
  This study was financed by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) - Brazil - Finance Code 001.

Data Availability Statement:

The authors declare that there are no data underlying the text.

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Edited by

• Editors:
  Antônio Gustavo de Luna Souto & Hans Raj Gheyi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  27 July 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  05 Nov 2025
• Accepted
  22 Mar 2026
• Published
  26 June 2026