SPORT BIOMECHANICS BEFORE AND AFTER THE RIO 2016 PARALYMPIC GAMES

Hara, Yana Barros; Silva, Anselmo de Athayde Costa e; Sá, Karina Santos Guedes de; Carpes, Felipe Pivetta; Rossato, Mateus

doi:10.1590/1517-8692202430022022_0001i

Review Article, Biomechanics • Rev Bras Med Esporte 30 • 2024 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1517-8692202430022022_0001i linkcopy

SPORT BIOMECHANICS BEFORE AND AFTER THE RIO 2016 PARALYMPIC GAMES

BIOMECÁNICA DEL DEPORTE ANTES Y DESPUÉS DE LOS JUEGOS PARALÍMPICOS RIO 2016

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Introduction: Events such as the Paralympic Games leave a series of legacies in the host societies. This is also applicable to the development of associated scientific knowledge, particularly in the field of sports biomechanics.

Objective: The objective of this study is to investigate the Brazilian scientific production in the field of biomechanics in Paralympic sports during the cycle that preceded and followed the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games. Additionally, the study aims to provide insights for future research endeavors.

Methods: The search was conducted on the Lattes Platform, utilizing the filters “Assunto” and “Doutores” and the keywords “Paralímpico” and “Paralympic.” In total, 723 authors were identified who published articles related to the topic. Subsequently, the curricula were accessed, and the articles were sorted and identified, resulting in 37 articles that met all inclusion criteria.

Results: The results indicate that: a) Brazil witnessed an increase in the number of publications after London 2012; b) The majority of these productions (87%) originate from Public Institutions; c) There was a greater participation of other regions of Brazil in the production of knowledge in the area after Rio 2016; d) Individual modalities such as powerlifting and athletics were the most researched, despite Brazil's reference status in some collective modalities; e) Women remain a minority, both as participants in research and as authors of publications; f) The productions demonstrate high levels of quality; g) The most commonly used research techniques in biomechanics were kinematics and dynamometry.

Conclusion: The field of biomechanics in Paralympic sports has significantly benefited from the legacy generated by the Rio 2016 Paralympics. As future challenges for researchers, the following aspects stand out: maintaining the quality of productions, expanding studies to include collective modalities, increasing the participation of other federated entities in the production of knowledge in this field, promoting greater gender equity, and incorporating new research techniques in biomechanics. Level of Evidence II; Review Study.

Keywords:
Para-Athletes; Biomechanical Phenomena; Sports for Persons with Disabilities

Authors	Institution	Objective	Modality	Athletes	Biomechanical instrumentation	Biomechanical parameters evaluated	Conclusions
Aidar et al.,²⁹	UFS	Evaluate sticking point strength indicators in Paralympic powerlifting athletes.	Powerlifting	12 men	Linear transducer Load cell Electromyograph	Maximum Isometric Force (MIF) Rate of Force Development (RFD) Time to reach the MIF (TMIF) Velocity (Vel) Dynamic time (DT) EMG	The MIF, RFD, TMIF, and Vel. tend to be harmed at the beginning and after the sticking point.
Bernardina et al.³⁷	UFMG	Quantify the asymmetries in bench press performance at different submaximal intensities using FANOVA.	Powerlifting	8 men 2 women	2D Kinematics	Mean velocity (MV) at 50 and 90% 1RM	FANOVA analysis is able to identify asymmetries in the different phases of the movement.
Resende et al.³⁰	UFS	Evaluate the effect of different types of warm ups on the strength and skin temperature of Paralympic powerlifting athletes.	Powerlifting	15 men	Thermographic camera Linear transducer Force sensor	Skin temperature Dynamic and static force (Impulse, variability, and peak torque)	The types of warm-up studied do not seem to interfere in the performance of Paralympic powerlifting athletes. However, thermal images showed that traditional warm-ups better meet the expected objectives for this preparation phase.
Ribeiro Neto et al.²⁸	SARAH Network	To verify the relationships between the medicine ball throw (MBT) and the field tests of mobility performance in wheelchair basketball and the peak torque of the shoulder and trunk in male and female WCB beginners.	Wheelchair basketball	19 men 18 women	Isokinetic dynamometer	Concentric peak torque Voluntary isometric peak torque	The MBT, a simple and feasible test, can be used to estimate and determine the wheelchair mobility performance of female and male WCB beginners.
Teles et al.³¹	UFS	Analyze dynamic and static strength indicators, at different intensities, on the performance of athletes with and without spinal cord injury.	Powerlifting	9 men (LM) 10 men (other disabilities)	Linear transducer Load cell Electromyograph	Maximum Isometric Force (MIF) Rate of Force Development (RFD) Time to reach MIF (TMIF) Impulse Fatigue Index (FI) Variability Mean propulsive velocity (MPV) Maximum velocity (Velmax) Power (W) sEMG	Static and dynamic strength indicators are similar in Paralympic weightlifters with spinal cord injury and other disabilities.
Dos Santos et al.¹⁸	UFS	Evaluate the use of different grip widths on powerlifting performance.	Powerlifting	12 men	Calipers Load cell Electromyograph	Mean propulsive velocity (MPV) Maximum Isometric Force (MIF) Time to reach MIF (TMIF) sEMG	At 25% of 1RM and with grip at 1.5 BAD, the highest MIF and MPV occurred. With 1.5 BAD a smaller TMIF was needed to reach 30%, 50%, and 100% of the MIF.
Fischer et al.¹⁹	UFSC	Compare the bioenergetic and biomechanical parameters of athletes with quadriplegia and paraplegia at submaximal speeds.	Handcycle	15 men 2 women	Power meter (crank)	Velocity (Vel) Mechanical power (W) Mechanical efficiency (ME%) Metabolic Power (MP)	Tetraplegics presented lower aerobic performance but similar metabolic costs compared to paraplegics at submaximal velocities.
Fraga et al.²⁰	UFS	To evaluate the effect of ibuprofen ingestion in post-training recovery on muscle injury indicators, body temperature, and muscle power.	Powerlifting	8 men	Load cell Thermographic camera	Maximum Isometric Force (MIF) Rate of Force Development (RFD) Skin temperature (Temp)	The effect of ibuprofen in preventing the normal decrease in muscle temperature during post-exercise recovery could potentially be indicative of a delay in the anti-inflammatory response.
Loturco et al.²¹	NAR	Investigate the association between the ideal power load in the exercises bench press, shoulder press, and prone bench pull and acceleration and performances in wheelchair basketball players.	Wheelchair basketball	11 men	Photocell Linear transducer	Sprint Velocity (Vsprint) Acceleration (Accel) Load (L) Mean propulsive velocity (MPV)	Players who produce more power in certain strength-power exercises are also able to accelerate faster and reach higher speeds over short distances (5, 10, and 20 m).
Ribeiro Neto et al.²²	SARAH Network	Verify the differences in total load, bar path in the sagittal plane, and mean bar velocity between the arched and flat bench press techniques in beginners (BG) and experienced (EG) Paralympic lifters.	Powerlifting	28 men 15 women	60 Hz camera	Full load Mean velocity Displacement: vertical, horizontal, and resultant Total Distance	The total load, bar path in the sagittal plane, and mean bar velocity were not significantly different between the arched and flat techniques for experienced athletes and powerlifting beginners during the eccentric and concentric phases of the movement.
Sampaio et al.²³	UFS	To analyze the effect of creatine supplementation (Cr) on peak torque (PT) and fatigue rate in bodybuilding Paralympic athletes.	Powerlifting	8 men	Load cell	Force (Kgf) Force (N) Peak torque (PT) Rate of force development (RFD) Maximum isometric strength (time)	Creatine supplementation has a positive effect on the performance of Paralympic powerlifting athletes, reducing the fatigue index and maintaining strength levels as well as PT.
Weber et al.²⁴	UEL	Propose field tests to estimate the anaerobic power of wheelchair basketball athletes.	Wheelchair basketball	11 men	Balance Bioelectrical impedance Manual dynamometer Cycle ergometer	Anthropometry Handgrip strength Peak power Mean power	The combination of field tests and anthropometric measurements seems to be appropriate to determine the anaerobic power of basketball wheelchair athletes in the lower classes.
Coswig et al.⁴⁴	UFPA	Evaluate the reliability of MyJump2 app measurements to assess vertical jump performance.	7-a-side soccer	40 men	Contact platform Jump app	Jump height Flight time	The MyJump2 app features high validity and reliability to measure the jump height and flight time of squat jumps and countermovement jumps in soccer athletes with cerebral palsy.
Feitosa et al.⁴⁷	UECE	Evaluate the kinematic, coordinative, and efficiency parameters measured in VO2max in swimmers with physical disabilities; Correlate these biomechanical parameters with time for a maximum test of 200 m.	Swimming	7 men 4 women	3D Kinematics	Stroke rate (SR) Stroke length (SL) Mean swimming speed (SS) Intracyclic velocity variation (IVV)	Swimmers with less significant impact of physical disability on specific swimming tasks had higher SL, SS, and propulsion efficiency. In general, the catch-up arm coordination model was adopted.
Kons et al.⁴⁸	UFSC	Evaluate the postural and neuromuscular control of judo athletes with and without visual impairment.	Judo	2 men	Manual dynamometer Force platform	Center of pressure (COP) Manual pressing force (FPM) Jump height (Alt.) Power (W) Maximum force (MF) Força de pressão manual (FPM)	The athlete with visual impairment showed greater balance in neutral and anteroposterior positions. The visually impaired athlete performed better in the squat jump, but lower performance in jumping against movement and handgrip strength test.
Loturco et al.²⁵	NAR	To analyze the relationships between different load intensities and movement speeds in bench press exercise.	Powerlifting	8 men 8 male little people 5 women	Linear transducer	Mean velocity (MVel) Mean propulsive velocity (MPV) Peak velocity (PV)	The load-velocity relationship is strong and accurate in Paralympic lifters, especially at higher load intensities (≥70% 1RM). These athletes can perform 1RM tests at velocities lower than those previously reported in the literature.
Machado et al.³²	UNICAMP	Evaluate peak torque and fatigue index in simulated wheelchair propulsion.	Rugby	6 men	Isokinetic dynamometer	Peak torque (PT) Fatigue index (FI)	Athletes do not show differences in PT and TI between limbs.
Monezi et al.³³	UNICAMP	Analyze time-motion of goalball players in official attacks considering the player's position, execution technique, and attack phases.	Goalball	16 men	60Hz camera	Distance covered by player Time spent Mean player velocity Maximum player velocity	Wingers made most of the shots and had higher values in all of the variables compared to centers, both in the preparation and attacking phases. The swing and throwing between the legs techniques presented higher values than the frontal technique in both attack phases.
Oliveira et al.⁴²	UFRJ	Analyze the dermatoglyphic and body composition characteristics.	5-a-side soccer	13 men	Skinfold Compass Calipers Balance	Anthropometry	The study found similarities between wings and goalkeepers, as well as between defense and pivots for most variables. The somatotypical profile presented by the athletes indicated the predominance of the muscular component in all tactical positions played in the game.
Simim⁴⁶	UFC	To investigate the demands (i.e., distances covered and acute physiological responses) of the amputee soccer match game (AS) and its impact on muscle endurance and power.	7-a-side soccer	16 men	GPS Accelerometer	Total distance Relative distance Mean velocity Maximum velocity Jump height Force production (absolute and relative)	Small differences were found between the first and second half for the total distance covered and in various speed categories, in addition, all neuromuscular performance measures decreased after the match.
Antunes et al.³⁹	UFSC	Evaluate power parameters, muscle imbalance and asymmetry indices in sprinters with cerebral palsy from different functional classes.	Athletics	4 men	Isokinetic dynamometer Force platform	Concentric peak torque Eccentric peak torque Conventional ratio Functional ratio Asymmetry index Jump height Peak power	Athletes with more severe cerebral palsy presented lower jumping performance and torque production of the knee extensors and flexors, in addition to presenting greater asymmetries between the limbs. Considering the results of athlete T37, it seems that training for a longer period could reverse part of the neuromuscular impairments caused by cerebral palsy.
Loturco et al.²	NAR	Describe the variations in the power performance of judokas in three consecutive training cycles in preparation for the ParaPan American Games, the World Championship, and the Paralympic Games.	Judo	11 men	Contact platform Linear transducer	Jump height Mean propulsive power	The power of the lower limbs gradually increased throughout the training period, reaching its maximum value immediately before the Paralympic Games. In addition, in this phase, the judokas produced the greatest power outputs in the PB and PBP exercises; and (3) equally, the best performances in the SJ and CMJ tests were achieved in this period.
Gorla et al.¹¹	UNICAMP	Investigate the effects of wheelchair rugby training on body composition.	Wheelchair rugby	13 men	Densitometer (Dexa)	Body composition in the arms Body composition in the trunk Body composition in the legs Body composition in the whole body	Regular training increased lean mass and bone mass in the arms and decreased fat mass throughout the body.
Lemos et al.¹²	UNIFESP	Compare the body composition obtained by air displacement plethysmography (ADP) and skinfolds (SF).	Athletics Goalball Swimming	33 men 37 women	Skinfold Compass Air Displacement Plethysmograph	Fat percentage Body density	ADP and SF body composition analyses show similar results, except for swimmers.
Loturco et al.¹³	NAR	Compare the muscle power and maximum isometric strength capabilities of Olympic and Paralympic judokas.	Judo	14 men 14 women	Contact platform Linear transducer Force platform	Mean propulsive power Maximum isometric strength	Visually impaired Olympic and Paralympic judokas have similar levels of maximum isometric strength, but muscle strength performance is superior in Olympic athletes.
Loturco et al.¹⁴	NAR	To test the effects of wearing compression garments on performance related to speed and power in visually impaired elite sprinters.	Athletics	2 men 6 women	Contact platform Linear transducer Photocell	Unloaded Squat Jump (SJ) Loaded Squat Jump (JS) Speed at distances of 20m Speed at distances of 70m	The acute increase in vertical jumping skill should be explored in preparing Paralympic sprinters during strength training sessions. However, the chronic effects on Paralympic athletes wearing compression garments need to be further tested in order to support their use as a specific training aid.
Pereira et al.¹⁵	NAR	Compare the physical performance of visually impaired Paralympic sprinters and their guides in jumping and sprint tests.	Athletics	3 men 7 women 10 male guides	Contact platform Measuring tape Photocell	Jump height (CMJ and SJ) Distance of 5 jumps with the right leg Jumping distance with the left leg 10m speed 50m speed	Guides performed better than visually impaired sprinters in the power and speed tests, and the net differences were greater in jumping ability. Furthermore, only visually impaired sprinters showed significant correlations between the results of the vertical jump (SJ and CMJ) and the speed in the 50 m sprint.
Santos et al.¹⁶	USP	Identify differences in trunk muscle strength and balance between the various classes and determine whether trunk muscle strength and balance correlate with the current classification.	Wheelchair basketball	42 men	Isokinetic dynamometer	Extensor peak torque Flexor torque peak Dynamic balance	The current observation-based classification system reasonably captures deficits in trunk muscle strength and balance in players.
Sousa et al.¹⁷	UFRJ	Analyze the dermatoglyphic profile and handgrip strength of the finalists of the Brazilian Championship of Paracanoe 2012.	Para Canoeing	19 men	Manual dynamometer	Manual handgrip strength	The groups presented very interesting characteristics for the practice of paracanoeing and, therefore, allow the application of the data directly in the training for a more specific and individualized approach.
Loturco et al.²⁶	NAR	Estimate the magnitude of variability and progression in actual performance in competitive vertical jump and field testing. Investigate the relationships between loaded and unloaded vertical jump test results and actual competitive results of sprint performance.	Athletics	7 men 8 women	Contact platform Linear transducer	Jump height (CMJ and SJ) Mean propulsive power	Vertical jump tests, under loaded and unloaded conditions, can be good predictors of the running performance of athletes, especially when combined in a multiple linear regression equation.
Medeiros et al.⁴⁴	UNIFESP	To investigate the relationship between body composition and sports performance 6 months after training.	Swimming	12 men 5 women	Air Displacement Plethysmograph	Lean mass Fat mass Density Time in 50m	A 6-month training period reduced fat mass and increased lean body mass. These factors were associated with sports performance, measured by the 50 m freestyle swim.
Silva et al.³⁹	UFMG	Assess and monitor the torque of knee extensors and flexors and the reports of complaints over 1 year.	Athletics	10 men 4 women	Isokinetic dynamometer	Peak torque (60º/s, 180º/s and 300º/s)	The torque of the flexor and extensor muscles of the right and left knee showed a gradual increase between assessments. The torque of the flexor and extensor muscles of the right and left knee showed a gradual increase between assessments. At the same time, a relationship between muscle imbalance and knee and thigh complaints was found in all three assessments after 1 year.
Borges et al.³⁷	UFRN	Analyze the percentage of muscle activation at different intensities in the bench press.	Powerlifting	6 men	Electromyograph	_SEMG (Serratus anterior, triceps, biceps, anterior deltoid and pectoralis major)	Muscle activation of the pectoralis major, anterior deltoids, serratus anterior, biceps and triceps during bench press performance was greater with increased intensity.
Campos et al.³³	UNICAMP	To characterize cardiorespiratory responses and motor performance of soccer 5 athletes after 14 weeks of training.	5-a-side soccer	7 men	Skinfold Compass Stopwatch Photocells Measuring tape	Fat percentage Fat free mass Peak power Mean power Fatigue index Agility Jump distance	The performance of athletes from the Brazilian Paralympic Team is inferior to that of professional players, the cardiorespiratory and motor performance is superior to that of semi-professional futsal athletes.
Zoppi³⁴	UNICAMP	To determine the physiological and performance improvements of Brazilian Paralympic rowers during a training season.	Para Rowing	8 men	Scale	Anthropometry	Adaptive rowers fully tolerated the training process, which allowed them to achieve a high level of training for physiological and performance improvements.
Campos et al.³⁵	UNICAMP	To analyze the effects of 16 weeks of training on physical fitness parameters and body composition in athletes.	5-a-side soccer	6 men	Skinfold compass Photocells Measuring tape	Fat percentage Maximum power Mean power Minimum power Fatigue index	The 5-a-side soccer training showed a trend towards parameters that are related to rapid recovery and execution of intense stimuli, due to organic adaptations generated by the training process.
Squarcini et al.⁴⁰	UESB	Determine endogenous circadian rhythm period of isometric and isokinetic strength and simple reaction time of totally blind people.	Athletics	6 men 4 women	Manual dynamometer Spine dynamometer Isokinetic dynamometer Thermometer	Body temperature Spine isometric strength Isometric strength in dominant and non-dominant hand Peak torque (60º/sec)	The circadian rhythms of force and simple reaction time of totally blind people are within their free-running periods.

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[TFN1] UFS (Federal University of Sergipe); UFMG (Federal University of Minas Gerais); UFSC (Federal University of Santa Catarina); NAR (São Paulo Nucleus of High Performance in Sport); UNICAMP (State University of Campinas); UEL (State University of Londrina); UFPA (Federal University of Pará); UECE (State University of Ceará); UFRJ (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro); UFC (Federal University of Ceará); USP (University of São Paulo); UNIFESP (Federal University of São Paulo); UFRN (Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte); UESB (State University of Southwest Bahia).