Corruption experiences in public services and prioritizing the environment in Latin America

Armesto, Alejandra

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Brasil

Revista de Sociologia e Política

Español English

Brasil

Español English

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Sumário

Artigos Originais • Rev. Sociol. Polit. 30 • 2022 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-98732230e002 copy

Corruption experiences in public services and prioritizing the environment in Latin America

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

ABSTRACT

Introduction:

What are the consequences of corruption experiences for public attitudes towards prioritizing the environment? Under corrupt governments protection of the environment is less likely because politicians and bureaucrats trade compliance for bribes, and citizens have less reason to trust that fellow citizens will contribute to protecting the environment. Therefore, corruption experiences reduce incentives for prioritizing the environment.

Materials and Methods:

The argument is tested by analyzing data from the 2016 survey of the Latin American Public Opinion Project for eighteen Latin American countries specifying ordinal logistic regression models and generalized structural equation models.

Results:

The results show that experiences of corruption reduce the probability of prioritizing the environment, and the mediation analysis suggests that the association between bribery and prioritizing the environment is mediated by a reduction in interpersonal trust.

Discussion:

Existing studies have focused on the consequences for environmental attitudes of corruption at the macro level. This work contributes to this research by exploring the policy feedback effects of corruption experiences on citizens environmental attitudes and broadens the knowledge of these attitudes in Latin America, a region less studied by the literature on the subject.

Keywords
corruption experiences; interpersonal trust; environment prioritization; structural equation models; Latin America

Variables	Observaciones	Media	Desviación estándar	Mínimo	Máximo
Medioambiente o crecimiento	28,713	39.626	22.312	1	7
Prioriza medioambiente	57,229	0.4047	0.4908	0	1
Experiencias de sobornos	21,429	0.4837	0.4997	0	1
Confianza interpersonal	28,345	22.834	0.9603	1	4
Eficacia política	56,742	34.743	19.720	1	7
Eficacia personal	56,695	40.271	17.742	1	7
Situación económica nacional	57,192	23.830	0.7176	1	3
Situación económica personal	57,548	21.784	0.7279	1	3
Ideología	50,228	54.112	27.376	1	10
Consumo de medios	57,57	16.346	10.394	1	5
Riqueza patrimonial	53,629	76.459	27.004	-0.287	12.106
Educación	57,33	96.282	44.112	0	18
Menores en el hogar	57,938	0.7420	0.4374	0	1
Mujer	57,937	0.5094	0.4999	0	1
Edad	57,853	403.157	162.357	16	112
Residencia urbana	57,938	0.7171	0.4503	0	1
Confianza institucional	27,53	0.4280	0.2330	0	1
Índice de Percepción de la Corrupción	27,536	38.03	142.201	17	74
Polity2	57,94	79.117	15.836	-7	10
PIB per cápita	57,941	12342.1	5.320.995	1636	21538
Recursos naturales % PIB	56,382	44.296	37.956	0.2083	1.468.086

	Modelo 1	Modelo 2	Modelo 3	Modelo 4
Sobornos	0.099 ^ p < 0.05	0.171 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.164 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.116 ^* * p < 0.1.
	(0.039)	(0.040)	(0.046)	(-0.0484)
Mujer	0.209 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.191 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.166 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.186 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.036)	(0.037)	(0.040)	(-0.0445)
Edad	0.016 ^ p < 0.05	0.021 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.017 ^ p < 0.05	0.0149
	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.008)	(-0.00924)
Edad2	-0.000	-0.000 ^ p < 0.05	-0.000	-0.0827 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(-0.0061)
Educación	-0.089 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.085 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.075 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.00009
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.006)	(-0.0001)
Urbano	0.069	0.114 ^ p < 0.05	0.139 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.111 ^* * p < 0.1.
	(0.044)	(0.045)	(0.050)	(-0.0491)
Confianza institucional	-	0.849 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.552 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-
	-	(0.096)	(0.116)	-
Riqueza patrimonial	-	-	-0.021 ^ p < 0.05	-0.0212 ^* * p < 0.1.
	-	-	(0.010)	(-0.00979)
Menores en el hogar	-	-	0.023	0.0318
	-	-	(0.064)	(-0.0708)
Eficacia política	-	-	0.059 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.0762 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-	(0.012)	(-0.011)
Eficacia personal	-	-	-0.014	-0.0012
	-	-	(0.014)	(-0.0131)
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	-	-	-0.195 ^ p < 0.05	-0.233 ^ p < 0.05
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	-	-	(0.080)	(-0.0777)
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	-	-	-0.064	-0.127
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	-	-	(0.080)	(-0.0769)
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	-	-	-0.067	-0.0883
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	-	-	(0.062)	(-0.06)
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	-	-	0.036	-0.00597
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	-	-	(0.063)	(-0.0643)
Ideología	-	-	0.031 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.0311 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-	(0.009)	(-0.00789)
Consumo de medios	-	-	0.043 ^ p < 0.05	0.0363
	-	-	(0.022)	(-0.0224)
Índice de Percepción de Corrupción	-	-	-	0.0185 ^ p < 0.05
Índice de Percepción de Corrupción	-	-	-	(-0.006)
Polity2	-	-	-	-0.598 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-	-	(-0.116)
PIB per cápita	-	-	-	0.00005
	-	-	-	(-0.00003)
Dependencia recursos naturales	-	-	-	0.0248
Dependencia recursos naturales	-	-	-	(-0.01)
/corte1	-1.272 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.813 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.794 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-4.368 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.168)	(0.174)	(0.221)	(-0.609)
/corte 2	-0.978 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.515 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.483 ^ p < 0.05	-4.056 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.166)	(0.173)	(0.220)	(-0.609)
/corte 3	-0.671 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.204	-0.160	-3.737 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.166)	(0.173)	(0.219)	(-0.609)
/corte 4	0.188	0.665 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.728 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-2.877 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.164)	(0.171)	(0.218)	(-0.608)
/corte 5	0.693 ^* ***** p < 0.01	1.176 ^* ***** p < 0.01	1.257 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-2.352 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.165)	(0.173)	(0.220)	(-0.608)
/corte 6	1.198 ^* ***** p < 0.01	1.690 ^* ***** p < 0.01	1.784 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.808 ^ p < 0.05
(0.166)	(0.174)	(0.222)	(-0.608)
Observaciones	10485	10065	8423	7596
Pseudo R²	0.019	0.021	0.023
Efectos fijos país	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ

	Modelo A5	Modelo A6
Sobornos	0.098 ^ p < 0.05	0.126 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.039)	(0.046)
Mujer	0.208 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.178 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.036)	(0.039)
Edad	0.016 ^ p < 0.05	0.015 ^* * p < 0.1.
(0.007)	(0.008)
Educación	-0.000	-0.000
(0.000)	(0.000)
Urbano	-0.088 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.079 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.005)	(0.006)
Riqueza patrimonial	0.068	0.112 ^ p < 0.05
(0.044)	(0.050)
Menores en el hogar	-	-0.022 ^ p < 0.05
	-	(0.010)
Eficacia política	-	0.027
	-	(0.064)
Eficacia personal	-	0.075 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	(0.011)
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	-	-0.005
	-	(0.014)
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	-	-0.228 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	(0.079)
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	-	-0.118
	-	(0.079)
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	-	-0.068
	-	(0.062)
Ideología	-	0.012
	-	(0.063)
Consumo de medios	-	0.035 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	(0.009)
/corte1	-	0.042 ^* * p < 0.1.
	-	(0.022)
/corte 2	-1.273 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.060 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.168)	(0.217)
/corte 3	-0.979 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.754 ^* ***** p < 0.01
(0.166)	(0.216)
/corte 4	-0.672 ^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.432 ^ p < 0.05
(0.166)	(0.216)
/corte 5	0.187	0.451 ^ p < 0.05
(0.164)	(0.214)
/corte 6	0.692 ^* ***** p < 0.01	0.977 ^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.165)	(0.216)
Observaciones	1.197 ^* ***** p < 0.01	1.503 ^* ***** p < 0.01
Pseudo R²	(0.166)	(0.217)
Efectos fijos país	10482	8599

	Modelo A7	Modelo A8	Modelo A9	Modelo A10	Modelo A11	Modelo A12
	Sin Argentina	Sin Bolivia	Sin Brasil	Sin Colombia	Sin Costa Rica	Sin Chile
Sobornos	0.119^ p < 0.05	0.137^* ***** p < 0.01	0.116^ p < 0.05	0.136^* ***** p < 0.01	0.137^* ***** p < 0.01	0.123^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.046)
Mujer	0.187^* ***** p < 0.01	0.178^* ***** p < 0.01	0.178^* ***** p < 0.01	0.180^* ***** p < 0.01	0.167^* ***** p < 0.01	0.186^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.040)	(0.040)	(0.041)	(0.040)	(0.040)	(0.040)
Edad	0.014^* * p < 0.1.	0.016^* * p < 0.1.	0.014	0.015^* * p < 0.1.	0.018^ p < 0.05	0.019^ p < 0.05
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Edad2	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000
	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Educación	-0.080^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.078^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.081^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.079^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.078^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.078^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Urbano	0.116^ p < 0.05	0.114^ p < 0.05	0.107^ p < 0.05	0.112^ p < 0.05	0.103^ p < 0.05	0.113^ p < 0.05
	(0.050)	(0.051)	(0.051)	(0.051)	(0.051)	(0.050)
Riqueza patrimonial	-0.023^ p < 0.05	-0.022^ p < 0.05	-0.021^ p < 0.05	-0.019^* * p < 0.1.	-0.021^ p < 0.05	-0.023^ p < 0.05
	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Menores en el hogar	0.027	0.044	0.028	0.049	-0.002	0.005
	(0.064)	(0.067)	(0.065)	(0.066)	(0.064)	(0.065)
Eficacia política	0.072^* ***** p < 0.01	0.073^* ***** p < 0.01	0.072^* ***** p < 0.01	0.071^* ***** p < 0.01	0.077^* ***** p < 0.01	0.077^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.011)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Eficacia personal	-0.002	-0.005	-0.006	-0.002	-0.008	-0.004
	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	-0.233^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.233^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.231^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.222^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.221^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.227^* ***** p < 0.01
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	(0.080)	(0.087)	(0.081)	(0.082)	(0.079)	(0.080)
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	-0.123	-0.108	-0.115	-0.110	-0.122	-0.126
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	(0.081)	(0.086)	(0.083)	(0.082)	(0.079)	(0.080)
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	-0.068	-0.048	-0.062	-0.089	-0.054	-0.077
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	(0.063)	(0.065)	(0.065)	(0.063)	(0.063)	(0.064)
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	0.020	0.031	0.021	-0.013	0.029	0.018
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	(0.064)	(0.066)	(0.066)	(0.063)	(0.064)	(0.064)
Ideología	0.035^* ***** p < 0.01	0.038^* ***** p < 0.01	0.034^* ***** p < 0.01	0.035^* ***** p < 0.01	0.038^* ***** p < 0.01	0.033^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Consumo de medios	0.034	0.047^ p < 0.05	0.039^* * p < 0.1.	0.045^ p < 0.05	0.040^* * p < 0.1.	0.035
	(0.022)	(0.022)	(0.022)	(0.023)	(0.022)	(0.022)
/corte1	-1.078^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.953^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.122^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.037^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.986^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.005^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.219)	(0.225)	(0.223)	(0.223)	(0.221)	(0.219)
/corte 2	-0.769^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.653^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.815^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.728^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.681^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.700^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.218)	(0.225)	(0.222)	(0.222)	(0.220)	(0.218)
/corte 3	-0.454^ p < 0.05	-0.333	-0.494^ p < 0.05	-0.411^* * p < 0.1.	-0.362^* * p < 0.1.	-0.378^* * p < 0.1.
	(0.217)	(0.224)	(0.221)	(0.221)	(0.219)	(0.217)
/corte 4	0.421^* * p < 0.1.	0.558^ p < 0.05	0.386^* * p < 0.1.	0.477^ p < 0.05	0.506^ p < 0.05	0.498^ p < 0.05
	(0.216)	(0.223)	(0.219)	(0.220)	(0.217)	(0.215)
/corte 5	0.939^* ***** p < 0.01	1.086^* ***** p < 0.01	0.915^* ***** p < 0.01	1.003^* ***** p < 0.01	1.024^* ***** p < 0.01	1.018^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.217)	(0.224)	(0.221)	(0.221)	(0.219)	(0.217)
/corte 6	1.464^* ***** p < 0.01	1.599^* ***** p < 0.01	1.445^* ***** p < 0.01	1.530^* ***** p < 0.01	1.539^* ***** p < 0.01	1.545^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.219)	(0.225)	(0.222)	(0.223)	(0.220)	(0.218)
Observaciones	8193	7971	8128	8150	8212	8199
Pseudo R2	0.023	0.022	0.023	0.021	0.022	0.023
Efectos fijos país	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ

	Modelo A13	Modelo A14	Modelo A15	Modelo A16	Modelo A17	Modelo A18
	Sin Ecuador	Sin Guatemala	Sin El Salvador	Sin Honduras	Sin México	Sin Nicaragua
Sobornos	0.096^ p < 0.05	0.131^* ***** p < 0.01	0.138^* ***** p < 0.01	0.118^ p < 0.05	0.154^* ***** p < 0.01	0.097^ p < 0.05
	(0.048)	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.047)	(0.047)
Mujer	0.166^* ***** p < 0.01	0.187^* ***** p < 0.01	0.181^* ***** p < 0.01	0.172^* ***** p < 0.01	0.180^* ***** p < 0.01	0.161^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.041)	(0.040)	(0.040)	(0.040)	(0.041)	(0.041)
Edad	0.017^* * p < 0.1.	0.011	0.017^ p < 0.05	0.013	0.015^* * p < 0.1.	0.014
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Edad2	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000
	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Educación	-0.077^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.078^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.078^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.080^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.077^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.079^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Urbano	0.088^* * p < 0.1.	0.117^ p < 0.05	0.120^ p < 0.05	0.127^ p < 0.05	0.107^ p < 0.05	0.105^ p < 0.05
	(0.053)	(0.052)	(0.050)	(0.051)	(0.051)	(0.051)
Riqueza patrimonial	-0.023^ p < 0.05	-0.023^ p < 0.05	-0.023^ p < 0.05	-0.022^ p < 0.05	-0.027^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.021^ p < 0.05
Riqueza patrimonial	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Menores en el hogar	0.018	0.019	0.035	0.040	0.035	0.022
Menores en el hogar	(0.066)	(0.066)	(0.065)	(0.066)	(0.068)	(0.065)
Eficacia política	0.077^* ***** p < 0.01	0.074^* ***** p < 0.01	0.076^* ***** p < 0.01	0.074^* ***** p < 0.01	0.076^* ***** p < 0.01	0.073^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Eficacia personal	-0.006	-0.002	-0.009	-0.006	-0.009	-0.011
	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	-0.238^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.247^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.206^ p < 0.05	-0.205^ p < 0.05	-0.216^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.256^* ***** p < 0.01
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	(0.082)	(0.080)	(0.080)	(0.082)	(0.079)	(0.082)
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	-0.138^* * p < 0.1.	-0.132	-0.095	-0.086	-0.109	-0.164^ p < 0.05
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	(0.082)	(0.081)	(0.080)	(0.082)	(0.079)	(0.082)
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	-0.082	-0.060	-0.078	-0.103	-0.053	-0.047
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	(0.062)	(0.064)	(0.063)	(0.064)	(0.063)	(0.063)
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	-0.002	0.005	-0.010	-0.007	0.008	0.058
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	(0.065)	(0.065)	(0.063)	(0.065)	(0.064)	(0.064)
Ideología	0.034^* ***** p < 0.01	0.036^* ***** p < 0.01	0.034^* ***** p < 0.01	0.034^* ***** p < 0.01	0.035^* ***** p < 0.01	0.032^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Consumo de medios	0.039^* * p < 0.1.	0.045^ p < 0.05	0.038^* * p < 0.1.	0.041^* * p < 0.1.	0.036	0.039^* * p < 0.1.
	(0.022)	(0.022)	(0.023)	(0.023)	(0.023)	(0.022)
/corte1	-1.090^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.125^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.012^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.114^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.024^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.184^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.223)	(0.225)	(0.222)	(0.220)	(0.233)	(0.222)
/corte 2	-0.784^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.815^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.706^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.799^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.714^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.874^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.222)	(0.224)	(0.221)	(0.219)	(0.233)	(0.221)
/corte 3	-0.464^ p < 0.05	-0.492^ p < 0.05	-0.386^* * p < 0.1.	-0.476^ p < 0.05	-0.396^* * p < 0.1.	-0.545^ p < 0.05
	(0.221)	(0.223)	(0.221)	(0.218)	(0.231)	(0.220)
/corte 4	0.420^* * p < 0.1.	0.395^* * p < 0.1.	0.499^ p < 0.05	0.417^* * p < 0.1.	0.468^ p < 0.05	0.349
	(0.220)	(0.222)	(0.220)	(0.217)	(0.230)	(0.219)
/corte 5	0.944^* ***** p < 0.01	0.927^* ***** p < 0.01	1.029^* ***** p < 0.01	0.951^* ***** p < 0.01	0.985^* ***** p < 0.01	0.884^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.221)	(0.223)	(0.221)	(0.218)	(0.231)	(0.221)
/corte 6	1.460^* ***** p < 0.01	1.448^* ***** p < 0.01	1.545^* ***** p < 0.01	1.481^* ***** p < 0.01	1.508^* ***** p < 0.01	1.411^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.222)	(0.224)	(0.222)	(0.219)	(0.231)	(0.222)
Observaciones	8085	8177	8267	8173	8040	8176
Pseudo R2	0.022	0.022	0.022	0.022	0.022	0.022
Efectos fijos país	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ

	Modelo A19	Modelo A20	Modelo A21	Modelo A22	Modelo A23	Modelo A24
	Sin Panamá	Sin Paraguay	Sin Perú	Sin República Dominicana	Sin uruguay	Sin Venezuela
Sobornos	0.132^* ***** p < 0.01	0.134^* ***** p < 0.01	0.122^ p < 0.05	0.134^* ***** p < 0.01	0.125^* ***** p < 0.01	0.124^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.047)	(0.048)	(0.049)	(0.047)	(0.046)	(0.048)
Mujer	0.184^* ***** p < 0.01	0.190^* ***** p < 0.01	0.180^* ***** p < 0.01	0.181^* ***** p < 0.01	0.176^* ***** p < 0.01	0.178^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.040)	(0.041)	(0.042)	(0.041)	(0.040)	(0.042)
Edad	0.016^* * p < 0.1	0.015^* * p < 0.1	0.015^* * p < 0.1	0.007	0.014	0.015^* * p < 0.1
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Edad2	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000	-0.000
	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Educación	-0.080^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.082^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.073^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.078^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.078^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.081^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Urbano	0.121^ p < 0.05	0.109^ p < 0.05	0.119^ p < 0.05	0.111^ p < 0.05	0.119^ p < 0.05	0.108^ p < 0.05
	(0.050)	(0.053)	(0.055)	(0.051)	(0.050)	(0.051)
Riqueza patrimonial	-0.024^ p < 0.05	-0.019^* * p < 0.1	-0.028^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.020^* * p < 0.1	-0.024^ p < 0.05	-0.020^ p < 0.05
	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Menores en el hogar	0.012	0.022	0.027	0.031	0.039	0.031
	(0.066)	(0.067)	(0.069)	(0.066)	(0.065)	(0.068)
Eficacia política	0.078^* ***** p < 0.01	0.077^* ***** p < 0.01	0.079^* ***** p < 0.01	0.076^* ***** p < 0.01	0.076^* ***** p < 0.01	0.080^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Eficacia personal	0.003	-0.008	-0.009	0.004	-0.008	-0.005
	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.015)
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	-0.202^ p < 0.05	-0.232^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.214^ p < 0.05	-0.249^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.241^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.227^* ***** p < 0.01
Situación económica personal (=Igual)	(0.080)	(0.082)	(0.083)	(0.082)	(0.080)	(0.080)
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	-0.090	-0.125	-0.077	-0.143^* * p < 0.1	-0.135^* * p < 0.1	-0.122
Situación económica personal (=Peor)	(0.081)	(0.082)	(0.080)	(0.082)	(0.080)	(0.080)
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	-0.074	-0.062	-0.074	-0.044	-0.057	-0.088
Situación económica nacional (=Igual)	(0.064)	(0.065)	(0.066)	(0.064)	(0.063)	(0.063)
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	-0.002	-0.006	0.005	0.055	0.017	-0.013
Situación económica nacional (=Peor)	(0.064)	(0.065)	(0.065)	(0.065)	(0.064)	(0.064)
Ideología	0.032^* ***** p < 0.01	0.037^* ***** p < 0.01	0.044^* ***** p < 0.01	0.035^* ***** p < 0.01	0.034^* ***** p < 0.01	0.031^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Consumo de medios	0.039^* * p < 0.1	0.045^ p < 0.05	0.048^ p < 0.05	0.045^ p < 0.05	0.046^ p < 0.05	0.045^ p < 0.05
	(0.022)	(0.023)	(0.023)	(0.023)	(0.022)	(0.023)
/corte1	-1.035^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.052^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.943^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.140^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.088^* ***** p < 0.01	-1.074^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.221)	(0.224)	(0.228)	(0.232)	(0.220)	(0.228)
/corte 2	-0.723^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.760^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.643^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.828^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.782^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.765^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.221)	(0.223)	(0.227)	(0.232)	(0.219)	(0.227)
/corte 3	-0.393^* * p < 0.1	-0.436^ p < 0.05	-0.334	-0.506^ p < 0.05	-0.462^ p < 0.05	-0.439^* * p < 0.1
	(0.220)	(0.222)	(0.227)	(0.230)	(0.218)	(0.226)
/corte 4	0.498^ p < 0.05	0.456^ p < 0.05	0.549^ p < 0.05	0.392^* * p < 0.1	0.418^* * p < 0.1	0.430^* * p < 0.1
	(0.218)	(0.221)	(0.226)	(0.229)	(0.217)	(0.225)
/corte 5	1.028^* ***** p < 0.01	0.981^* ***** p < 0.01	1.069^* ***** p < 0.01	0.932^* ***** p < 0.01	0.938^* ***** p < 0.01	0.964^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.219)	(0.222)	(0.227)	(0.230)	(0.218)	(0.226)
/corte 6	1.560^* ***** p < 0.01	1.509^* ***** p < 0.01	1.596^* ***** p < 0.01	1.469^* ***** p < 0.01	1.459^* ***** p < 0.01	1.508^* ***** p < 0.01
	(0.221)	(0.224)	(0.229)	(0.231)	(0.219)	(0.228)
Observaciones	8226	8081	7644	8069	8390	8002
Pseudo R2	0.023	0.023	0.022	0.021	0.023	0.023
Efectos fijos país	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ	SÍ

	Modelo A25	Modelo A26	Modelo A27
	Sobornos	Desconfianza interpersonal	Desconfianza interpersonal e institucional
Prioriza medioambiente
Sobornos	-0.0437*	-0.034	-0.0533*
	-0.021	-0.0213	-0.0219
Edad	-0.000261	-0.000236	-0.000565
	-0.000823	-0.000833	-0.000855
Mujer	-0.0826^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.0775^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.0739^* ***** p < 0.01
	-0.0196	-0.0198	-0.0202
Educación	0.00932^* ***** p < 0.01	0.00901^* ***** p < 0.01	0.00898^* ***** p < 0.01
	-0.00262	-0.00265	-0.00273
Urbano	-0.0950^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.00232	-0.00321
	-0.0226	-0.0044	-0.0045
Riqueza	-0.00156	-0.0593	-0.0619^* * p < 0.
	-0.00436	-0.031	-0.0315
Menores en el hogar	-0.0612^* * p < 0.	-0.0869^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.0967^* ***** p < 0.01
	-0.0308	-0.0229	-0.0235
Desconfianza	-	-0.0755^* ***** p < 0.01	-0.0832^* ***** p < 0.01
interpersonal	-	-0.0195	-0.02
Desconfianza	-	-	0.196^* ***** p < 0.01
institucional	-	-	-0.0447
Constante	-0.229^ p < 0.05	-0.204^ p < 0.05	-0.280^* ***** p < 0.01
	-0.0706	-0.0719	-0.0748
var(M1[país)	0.0367^ p < 0.05	0.0375^ p < 0.05	0.0358^ p < 0.05
	-0.0128	-0.013	-0.0125
Desconfianza interpersonal
Sobornos	-	0.0592^* ***** p < 0.01	0.0389^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-0.00467	-0.00557
Desconfianza	-	-	0.267^* ***** p < 0.01
institucional	-	-	-0.0124
Constante	-	0.359^* ***** p < 0.01	0.210^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-0.00322	-0.0078
Var(e.desconfianza interpersonal)	-	0.236^* ***** p < 0.01	0.232^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-0.0016	-0.00187
Desconfianza institucional
Sobornos	-	-	0.0731^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-	-0.00251
Constante	-	-	0.549^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-	-0.00174
Var (e.desconfianza institucional)	-	-	0.0492^* ***** p < 0.01
	-	-	-0.000393
AIC/BIC	25300.19	85516.46	60943.57
N	19522	43461	31310

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[1] Alejandra Armesto (alejandra.armesto@flacso.edu.mx) es Doctora en Ciencia Política por la Universidad de Notre Dame, EEUU, y Profesora-investigadora del Área de Procesos Políticos de FLACSO-México.