MARKETING MANAGEMENT AND SEXISM IN PROMOTION: THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP

ABSTRACT

Studies show us that women face more difficulties in business (management, accounting, finance, behavioral sciences and people management) than their male counterparts because of stereotypical considerations about their role, which have negative consequences on opportunities on the workplace. So, leadership emerges in this research with a reinforced role and as a crucial way in supporting marketing management (specifically the case of communication and advertising) and in its relation to sexism and gender equality. It is necessary to understand to what extent the media and the advertising industry influences the stereotypes that will dictate the rise or not of female leadership. The present work aims to contribute, theoretically, to the understanding of this phenomenon, gathering some of the main contributions of the existent literature. Future studies should lead researchers to empirically test the role of leadership in shaping organizations' communication policies and plans (specifically, promoting gender equality). In an interdisciplinary perspective, this study intends to contribute to marketing and to organizational behavior. Future work will help to the elaboration of a focus group and in-depth interviews bringing together some decision-making agents (in the company's perspective) and consumers (from a demand perspective).

Keywords:
Sexism; consumer; leadership

RESUMO

Estudos indicam que as mulheres enfrentam mais dificuldades nas áreas empresariais (gestão, contabilidade, finanças, ciências do comportamento e gestão de pessoas) do que os seus colegas homens, devido a considerações estereotipadas sobre o seu papel, que têm consequências negativas nas oportunidades no local de trabalho. Neste sentido, a liderança surge, nesta investigação, com um papel reforçado e como uma ferramenta crucial no apoio à gestão do marketing (em específico, o caso da comunicação e da publicidade) e na sua relação com o sexismo e a igualdade do género. Em específico, torna-se necessário compreender até que ponto a comunicação social e a indústria publicitária influenciam os estereótipos que vão ditar a ascensão ou não da liderança feminina. O presente trabalho visa contribuir, em nível teórico, para a compreensão deste fenómeno, reunindo alguns dos principais contributos da literatura. Estudos futuros deverão conduzir os investigadores no sentido de testar empiricamente qual o papel da liderança na definição das políticas e planos de comunicação das organizações (em específico, a promoção da igualdade de género). Numa perspetiva interdisciplinar, o presente estudo pretende contribuir para o marketing e para o comportamento organizacional. Futuros trabalhos deverão conduzir à elaboração de focus group e entrevistas em profundidade reunindo alguns agentes da tomada de decisão (na ótica da empresa) e consumidores (na ótica da procura).

Palavras-chave:
Sexismo; consumidor; liderança

RESUMEN

Los estudios indican que las mujeres se enfrentan a más dificultades en las áreas empresariales (gestión, contabilidad, finanzas, ciencias de comportamiento y gestión de personas) que sus colegas varones, debido a consideraciones estereotipadas sobre su papel, que tienen consecuencias negativas en las oportunidades en el lugar de trabajo. En este sentido, el liderazgo surge en esta investigación con un papel reforzado y como una herramienta crucial en el apoyo a la gestión del marketing (en particular, el caso de la comunicación y la publicidad) y en su relación con el sexismo y la igualdad de género. En concreto, es necesario comprender hasta qué punto la comunicación social y la industria publicitaria influencian los estereotipos que van a dictar la ascensión o no del liderazgo femenino. El presente trabajo pretende contribuir, en nivel teórico, a la comprensión de este fenómeno, reuniendo algunas de las principales contribuciones de la literatura. Los estudios futuros deben conducir a los investigadores a probar empíricamente cuál es el papel del liderazgo en la definición de las políticas y planes de comunicación de las organizaciones (en particular, la promoción de la igualdad de género). En una perspectiva interdisciplinaria, el presente estudio pretende contribuir al marketing y al comportamiento organizacional. Los futuros trabajos conducen a la elaboración de focus group y entrevistas en profundidad reuniendo algunos agentes de la toma de decisión (en la óptica de la empresa) y consumidores (en la óptica de la demanda).

Palabras clave:
Sexismo; consumidor; liderazgo

Introduction

The concept of gender inequality is intrinsic to leadership, just as the concept of advertising is inseparable from that stereotype. Gender-based stereotypes influence society's perception and beliefs about the idea of a female person occupying a leadership position. And what is one of the main diffusers of these stereotypes? The advertising industry, controlled by the marketing managers who use it to spread their product.

The sexism present in society proves to be a powerful agent in the creation of stereotypes that will spread in the form of advertising and communication. Gender is one of the biggest obstacles for women to take on the task of leading, and it creates a constant assessment of women's work, their payment and career prospects. If the woman goes against the stereotype, the woman is penalized. But no one is penalized for believing this stereotype in the first place.

Dividing genders into dominators and subordinates, sexism presents itself as an eternal perpetuator of gender inequality. The concepts of hostile, benevolent and ambivalent sexism are necessary to fully understand how gender inequality spreads. The data from Unicef (2006) show us a world that has not yet received the female immensity in its entirety. The woman still represents a submission to a man, the selective birth still persists and the education offered to her is often not enough.

Advertising is one of the main propagators of this inequality, going through unethical intricacies where the female figure appears represented in a stereotyped way (Cohan, 2001). Differences perpetuated by stereotypes put women at a disadvantage before men in the workplace (Merchant, 2012). It is much easier to ignore the issue of sex and investigate the issue of leadership within an organization by having other standards. However, the obstacles we encounter to female ascension cannot be undifferentiated, having a high importance in how women will perform their duties (Colwill & Townsend, 1999).

It is essential to understand the full range of concepts mentioned and how they relate to and become a barrier to women's rise to leadership, with marketing playing a key role, both from an internal and external perspective.

Sexism and leadership in marketing contexts

At a time when gender equality is becoming increasingly relevant in the social and professional sphere, understanding the definition of sexism is of utmost importance. Sexism is one of the main barriers to gender equality, especially if problems are detected in the female sphere.

Sexism divides genders into dominators and subordinates. The role of dominator is given to the male and the subordinate to the female. This happens in the economic and cultural structures of society. That is, the human being over time has been creating ideas and practices to dictate what behavior each sex is supposed to have. The concept of sexism is presented to us in a complex way. Beyond this rigid division, we must not forget that discrimination against one sex occurs and that it relies on the assignment of roles to gender and stereotypes perpetuated over time. On the other hand, the study of consumer behavior (often internal customers) has progressively gained importance in the study among marketing and behavioral sciences professionals (Coelho et al., 2017). The way in which society identifies gender is vital for the perpetuation of sexism in different areas, as society uses different sexes to group people together and to attribute different characteristics or assumptions to them. However, we cannot fail to emphasize the high importance of perpetuating these stereotypes in the factor of the female figure whether or not to seek jobs that encourage assertive leadership, and society often finds her unfit for such.

The intricacies of sexism are much longer than one might think at first glance. Sexism is not limited to some comments or stereotypes propagated through the media. Sexism is a strong influencer of society and sexist attitudes and behaviors are an undesirable constant. It is therefore important to distinguish the various forms of sexism in order to decipher the true concept of sexism.

Sexism comprises two components that are divided into benevolent sexism and hostile sexism. These concepts are extremely important for us to understand the subversion that the female figure has always suffered. Moreover, sexism is more complex than what the common citizen still seems to assimilate. The concepts of benevolent sexism and hostile sexism were first introduced to us by Glick and Fiske in 1996. The authors state that sexism is composed by two dimensions, hostile and benevolent.

Hostile sexism, as the name implies, characterizes the female figure in a negative way. Women are generally represented as incapable, weak, vulnerable and easy to manipulate (Plakoyiannaki et al., 2008). In this dimension, it is stated that women's desire is to gain control over the male figure, either from feminist ideologies or by taking advantage of their inherent sexuality (Glick & Fiske, 2001). Hostile sexism is then often directed at women who support feminist movements, thus defying male supremacy, competing for high positions in different jobs, often filled by male individuals, and willing to control the male in an intimate relationship (Glick & Fiske, 2001).

Benevolent sexism presents itself as a subtle way of inferiorizing women, representing them as in need of help and protection. This sexism encompasses the woman who cares about the appearance and the stereotype of the submissive woman (Plakoyiannaki et al., 2008). In addition to the need to be protected by the male figure, the woman is seen as a pure creature that must always be supported and adored by her man, in order to complement and fulfil her life (Glick & Fiske, 2001). The woman is seen as a wife who should be worshiped for serving marital purposes, both as a housewife and in sexual intercourse. It is also important to emphasize the importance of their reproductive function (Glick & Fiske, 2001).

The components of benevolent sexism and hostile sexism seem simultaneously distinctive and complementing each other. Both dimensions have three spheres that give us the main differences between them and, at the same time, how they complement each other. Glick and Fiske (2001) state that in hostile sexism we see dominating or hostile paternalism, while in benevolent sexism we encounter protective or benevolent paternalism. On both sides man appears to us as a father figure. If in the first instance the woman is seen as something to be controlled and mastered; in protective paternalism we see the woman as a being who must be cared for and protected, as with a child. In hostile sexism we are presented with heterosexual hostility, where men retaliate when women question their power and control. In the benevolent dimension, there is a heterosexual intimacy, which relates to the desire to maintain intimate relationships with the female figure, deifying it. Finally, in hostile sexism, man develops a competitive gender differentiation, where the male accentuates gender differences and competes with women, always favouring the figure of men given their gender. Meanwhile, in benevolent sexism there is a complementary gender differentiation, where the male individual also accentuates the differences between the sexes, but presents the favoured female figure, often due to the role of wife, mother and housewife.

However, and although it may seem such on the first impact, benevolent sexism is not presented to us positively. If we are to perform a more complex analysis, we quickly understand that benevolent sexism is based on the inferiority of women over men (Glick & Fiske, 2001). Stereotypes continue to persist in this dimension, which leads to gender inequality, as the female figure is presented to us as weak and only fit for certain gender stereotyped roles beforehand (Glick & Fiske, 2001). Benevolent sexism is likewise a form of prejudice. Moreover, benevolent sexism can likewise contribute to the perpetuation of hostile sexism, since it always presents man as the dominant figure before woman. If the man protects woman in the dimension of benevolent sexism, he must be superior and stronger than herself, giving rise to the attitudes that characterize hostile sexism. The problems caused by benevolent sexism to women are numerous. If the female figure believes that man it’s her provider and protector, her empowerment and possible protest against male domination becomes extremely complicated. Thus, gender inequality prevails (Glick & Fiske, 2001). Sexism is composed of both dimensions and they lead to gender inequality in different fields of society.

Ambivalent sexism proves to be a complex concept. Glick and Fiske (2001) argue that the same male may have behaviors characterized by hostile sexism and benevolent sexism. These end up dividing the different female figures into groups. Women who serve their role as mother and wife are placed on a pedestal and face benevolent behavior, while women seeking to escape male control are rewarded with hostile attitudes. Glick and Fiske (2001) also state that the man can adopt an ambivalent attitude towards the same woman, giving the example of domestic violence, where a man reacts with violence when the woman acts in disagreement with what was expected, being this attitude followed for a period of remorse, often referred to as a honeymoon period. Although the greatest form of prejudice is supported by hostile sexism, benevolent sexism also has a great importance in perpetuating gender inequality. The authors state that it is important to understand how the sexist attitudes of the male individual are affected by the social context in which they are inserted and the current situation. They then argue that a man can demonstrate his hostile behavior at home, in a private situation with his wife or girlfriend, and behave like a true gentleman in the eyes of society in a public context. However, this would not be chivalry, but rather behaviors originated by the thought of benevolent sexism (Chisango, Mayekiso, & Thomae, 2015).

It is essential to develop the concept of sexist behavior, as the sexist attitude has been studied but the behavior hasn’t. The authors state that people often do not recognize ambivalent sexism, hypothesizing that this is because hostile sexism can happen in private contexts and benevolent sexism in public contexts. To support this hypothesis, the authors conducted a study of 109 female participants from Zimbabwe, who were black, married and heterosexual. The results of the study showed that African women experienced more hostile behaviors in private than in public at the hands of their husbands, corroborating the theory initially presented (Chisango et al., 2015).

Gender inequality

Kabeer (2005) states that gender inequality is a multidimensional concept that cannot be reduced to prejudice in a single sphere. That is, it isn’t only in daily life or in the workplace that the female figure struggles with the prejudices inherent in society. All spheres must be worked to overcome this social problem.

According to Morais and Ramos (2016), one of the current problems today focuses on gender inequality. Eliminating gender inequality and empowering the female figure appear to us as key goals to provide women the full freedom that has been denied to them throughout the ages. The true empowerment of women will only happen when they reach the same education and social and financial status of the male figure. Annan says that until total gender equality exists, sustainable development will not be achievable. Adopted in 1979, the Cedaw (Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women) was an important step taken by the United Nations to combat gender inequality (Cedaw, 1979, p. 3). In the convention, discrimination against women is defined as:

[... ] any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.

There seems to be several layers when we discuss what gender inequality is. The author believes that the problem is not homogeneous, but multidimensional and composed of several aspects. To begin with, women face inequality in mortality. In countries with higher poverty rates or higher life-threatening situations, women are always condemned not to survive. Male survival is much higher, especially in countries in the northern region of Africa. Then the author points to the inequality in birth, evidencing the preference for the male child, which is predominant in regions such as the Asian. In recent years selective abortion has gained attention, with females being the most affected.

The author then talks about inequality in education, and women are prevented in many countries from continuing their studies or even entering school. Allied to inequality in education, we find the inequality of opportunities that exists even in countries considered to be first world places. Although prejudice against women does not happen on the same scale as before, it still exists and can be denoted by factors such as payments and career progression. Still related to the above, professional inequality it’s also one of the enumerated factors that constitute the broad concept of gender inequality. The concept of “proper work for men” is still internalized in society, making it difficult for women to expand into certain areas.

Inequality of ownership of assets is also a reality. In some countries women are not allowed to have real estate in their name and inheritance issues still often arise in connection with their first child. Finally, we are presented with inequality within the family. This, felt in the woman's own home, ends up with the idea that the woman can even practice, but it must be enough not to jeopardize the housework.

In 2006, Unicef reached disturbing conclusions about treatment for the female figure during its life cycle. Also during the parent's pregnancy, the female child experiences a higher rate of termination of pregnancy compared to the unborn child of the male gender. This is, according to the book's authors, a cultural issue based on the idea that it is preferable to give birth to a male child. This is remarkable and worrisome in countries such as China and India, two of the highest birth rate nations in the world. Fetic femicide is unfortunately a common practice. The issue of birth inequality that Sousa e Rocha (2019) posed in previous years is now corroborated by Unicef statistical data.

During the adolescence, it is often shown that females lack the same educational opportunities as males. However, the lack of basic education will deprive women of similar opportunities as a social person and future part of the paid labour market. Reaching your full potential is also a worrying task. Statistics from Unicef (2006) showed that only 43% of female adolescents at the time were able to reach high school. With so many educational barriers, how can we expect any equity in the job market?

Education is an essential engine for mental and physical development for any human being. Access to an egalitarian education will improve a woman's cognitive ability, preparing her to take on more demanding tasks in the future as a professional. Another of the effects of consistent education is the growing concern of the female figure for her own well-being, which will make her motivated to think about her professional and personal future (Kabeer, 2005).

The truth is that if women do not care about achieving the much desired and claimed equity and equality, the task will become even more complicated than it already is. Women must have the ability to deal with all events in their surroundings, and education is essential for this (Kabeer, 2005). A study by World Bank in 2002 proved that gender inequality plays a significant role in a nation's economic growth. That is, as women are not allowed to achieve the same education as males, skilled human capital diminishes and affects a country's global and economic growth (Klasen, 2002).

In some regions, women are not only deprived of education, they are equally deprived of access to resources, political power, development opportunities, and business positions that denote some kind of leadership. Achieving the same opportunities as males becomes an extremely challenging task for any woman anywhere in the globe. Faced with existing inequality, the female figure becomes more vulnerable when it comes to sexual abuse, domestic violence and financial independence (Unicef, 2006). We cannot ignore that much of the prejudice experienced by the female figure stems from cultural beliefs, religious customs, social traditions and stereotypes perpetuated in different media. The image of what women can and cannot do is intrinsically supported on various bases of society, making breaking the gender pattern extremely complicated.

Leadership: concept and evolution

Leadership is a process of social and mutual influence in which various actors engage in leadership interactions to achieve a collective goal (Northouse, 2018).

The historical evolution of the study of leadership has resulted in the various approaches we know today. From Bryman's perspective (1986) there are four fundamental theories in the study of leadership. The first, Trait Theory, is based on the relevance of diverse individual traits and competencies to leadership effectiveness, which remained until the late 1940s; behavioral approaches date back to the 1950s in an orientation between tasks and relationship; The contingency approach, beginning in the late 1960s and early 1980s, focuses on the interaction between the individual, the environment in which he / she is inserted and the task, constituting a very complex interaction; The new leadership approach that emerged in the early 1980s includes charismatic and visionary transformational leadership (Ferreira, Sousa, & Gonçalves, 2019).

Leadership in management and strategy contexts is the ability to influence others to make voluntary and routine decisions that increase the long-term viability of the organization while maintaining short-term financial stability. term (Rosenbach, 2018). Visionary leadership has the future in view and involves taking risks. The perception of visionary leaders about themselves is not tied to the organization and, under their leadership, organizational control is maintained through socialization and compliance with a common set of norms, values and opinions (Spadari & Nakano, 2018).

According to Chiavenato (2016) leadership is the process of directing people's behavior towards the achievement of some goals. Leading can mean leading, motivating, guiding, aggregating people and ideas. And organizations understand that they need to find or train workers who can perform these skills in order to meet growing demands in an increasingly dynamic and competitive marketplace. Theoretical understanding of leadership has evolved in recent decades, from the earliest studies that associated the leader with someone with special traits and attributes, to the most recent perspectives on charismatic leadership or spiritual leadership (Khoury, 2018). Throughout the history of mankind we have witnessed a stereotype of leadership whose profile is grounded in masculinity as strong, directive and decisive people. Although women have gained greater access to supervision and 14 middle management positions, they remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Gonçalves, 2012). According to Moller and Gomes (2010), female leadership is an evolving theme, although a number of stereotypes and a vision of leadership linked to male characteristics still prevail. For example, for Carvalho (2000) women in their organizations have a more transformational leadership style and, in this study, presented some difficulties in adapting to a strongly masculine culture. Muller (2008), in turn, argues that women pay greater attention to the feelings of others, using sensitivity in decision-making, which causes closer and more humanized relationships, creating greater cohesion and adhesion in the team. On the other hand, although women make up 40% of the working population in the western world, they still form a minority in management positions and are almost invisible in top management (Moller & Gomes, 2010). Some leadership literature favors transformational, rather than transactional, leadership models; Some research reinforces women's competences, leading to the idea of having a particular style of female leadership (Moreira, 2004; Moller & Gomes, 2010).

Sexism in the media and advertising industry

Kotler and Levy (1969) argue that the term marketing is mostly associated with profit generation and business, namely the dichotomy of stimulating consumer purchase of a product. In the most basic terms, marketing involves the four P's: product / service, price, distribution, and promotion. Now, advertising falls into the last sphere of the marketing mix. Advertising has a significant impact on consumer behavior, whether negative or positive. Advertising is often criticized by the average consumer due to sexism, manipulation of information conveyed or ethical shortcomings (Katrandjiev, 2007). Female stereotypes in commercials are one of the hotly debated topics.

It is not today that the representation of women in different advertisements has been worrying society. Cohan (2001) argues that one of the main ethical problems of advertising for women is related to stereotypes, since many ads still present us with the stereotypical female figure, thus existing a certain latent sexism, whether benevolent or hostile. The female figure is often portrayed as submissive, dissatisfied, confused or in need of assistance.

According to Plakoyiannaki et al. (2008) Sexist advertisements have largely contributed to gender inequality and the promotion of sexism in society. It is therefore essential to understand them, as the effect of sexism is aggravated by the rapid spread of online content and the subsequent internalization of it by consumers. Kacen and Nelson (2002) argue that stereotypes in advertising continue to exist, and in the last decades of the twentieth century they took root in the industry more than ever. The consequences of these stereotypes range from affecting female self-image to the misogynist teachings to which women, men and children are exposed in the advertisements in question.

Browne (1998) defines gender stereotypes as common and general beliefs about the different sexes, their physical and psychological characteristics, their roles and behaviors. According to Cohan (2001), the real question that arises, after an analysis of what happens in the advertising industry in relation to the female image, is where is the defense of gender equality when the female figure is portrayed as an object? For Lafky et al. (1996), stereotypes underlie what we call advertising ideologies. These stereotypes eventually become a guide for women and men about how they should behave or what career path they should pursue.

In today's society, feminists, activists, consumers and some part of the media have been showing concern about the sexist representation of women in advertising. Lavine, Sweeney and Wagner (1999) state that television commercials are a natural context for stereotyping that will perpetuate gender inequality. Ads are presented as a source of information for most of society, often shaping it according to the images displayed. The representation of women as inferior to men is considered a major concern, since females are often presented to us as unimportant or of little value to society. Given the harmful consequences of stereotyped, sexist and discriminatory advertising, the question arises as to the effectiveness of the representation of women and men in non-traditional roles in advertising as a way to explore alternatives to current advertising.

In today's society, feminists, activists, consumers and some of the media have been demonstrating their concern about the sexist representation of women in communication and its long-term implications, in particular for the rise of female figures to positions of leadership. Nalawade and Nale (2013) state that consumer behavior is multidimensional, complex and dynamic. Kotler and Levy (1969) claim that analysis and research on consumer behavior is needed, and these tasks are essential for understanding how the consumer will react to the product we are promoting and the way we are doing it. Now it is important to understand how the female figure will react to her stereotyped exposure in commercials. Not only the woman, but all the general reaction to her representation. By exploring what happens in leadership, the influence of stereotypes on the practicality of the concept, we can come to different conclusions about what to do or not about marketing management in the field of the advertising industry.

Female leadership: the influence of stereotypes on social communication

The first studies on women in leadership positions began only in the 1980s (Shamir & Eilam-Shamir, 2018). Prior to that, researchers did not associate the leader figure with the female figure. Let us be practical, this was not the case because society did not associate the figure of leader with the woman.

Unfortunately, not enough associates today do that either. Although women occupy more high-ranking positions these days, they still aren’t represent enough. The main obstacles to female leadership are caused by stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination. Women are always seen as inferior beings. Davidson and Burke (2011) came to the conclusion that women's participation increased in positions considered important, but sexism and segregation are still a reality. Moreover, the proportional rate of women in these positions relative to men in these positions is alarming and, as expected, lower. Although legislation in many countries that supports women in the labour market has increased in recent decades, problems such as continued wage gaps and lack of respect for female authority continue to raise barriers to workplace equity. Although they are recruited in almost the same numbers, women continue to progress more slowly in their careers.

Even more serious is that the female figure has been recognized as having all the necessary and essential characteristics to assume leadership positions more effectively than the male figure (Moller & Gomes, 2010). Women have what it takes to be the great leaders of our tomorrow, yet the world still fears that. Despite innumerable existing theories that women represent positive news for the position of leader, companies are still eager to bet on them (Iogulu & Wood, 2006). What else needs to be done for society to fully understand what it has been missing over the years? If contemporary theories and studies do not break down the barriers, what could finally put an end to sexism in managerial positions?

The first studies on women in leadership positions began only in the 1980s (Shamir & Eilam-Shamir, 2018). Prior to that, researchers did not associate the leader figure with the female figure. Let us be practical, this was not the case because society did not associate the figure of leader with the woman.

Unfortunately, not enough associates today either. Although women occupy more high-ranking positions these days, they still do not represent enough or equal equality. The main obstacles to female leadership are caused by stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination. Women are always seen as inferior beings. Davidson and Burke (2011) came to the conclusion that women's participation increased in positions considered important, but sexism and segregation are still a reality. Moreover, the proportional rate of women in these positions relative to men in these positions is alarming and, as expected, lower. Although legislation in many countries that supports women in the labor market has increased in recent decades, problems such as continued wage gaps and lack of respect for female authority continue to raise barriers to workplace equity. Although they are recruited in almost the same numbers, women continue to progress more slowly in their careers.

The influence of stereotypes on the ideas perpetuated by the society of female inferiority turns out to be more than remarkable. One of the studies proving the influence of commercials on the perpetuation of stereotypes that propagated gender differences was carried out in 1984 (Geis et al., 1984). The authors concluded that the sexual stereotypes portrayed in television commercials operated as an essential part of society and inhibited the possible aspirations of the female figure.

The importance of these television ads and their message lies in their overall transmission: if the ads are so large, it can only be true and they represent everyone. In the study it was found that women exposed to ads that represented the male figure as a housewife or female servant had higher career aspirations than women exposed to ads where the female figure is stereotyped as a submissive. However, the desire to assume a leadership role is inhibited, even often in non-profit contexts (Sousa & Soares, 2019).

A study by Cheryan, Plaut, Davies e Steele (2009) found that television commercials that stereotyped the female figure affected women's leadership aspirations. That is, sexist ads that propagated social female stereotypes persuaded women to look for less important roles rather than empowerment by achieving possible leadership in their workplace. Thus, they concluded that exposure to sexist ads largely undermined women's aspirations as leaders.

According to Davis et al. (2005), women present in non-sexist ads did not opt for any role, which validates the influence that stereotypes on television have had on the female figure and their professional hopes throughout the history of advertising. Women who saw stereotyped ads gave up their professional aspirations as leaders. This reaction can also be represented by the concept of stereotype threat. This happens when stereotyped individuals are aware of the stereotypes they are targeting and the risks that are being diminished. The women who participated in the study so feared the reprisals they would suffer as leaders that they eventually gave up on the idea (Davis et al., 2005).

However, the authors similarly concluded that women's aspirations in the field of leadership could be recovered, for example, in environments where their identity was preserved. Thus, the female figure would be protected from assumptions and stereotypes based on her gender. An example of this is writers who choose to put abbreviations of their names in books that do not reveal their genre. Thus, they get their work to be evaluated by the public and critically more fairly and without any influence on their sexual identity. Another study by Tate and Yang (2015), based on US census data from 1993 to 2001, found that women in leadership positions in a company tended to compensate for gender inequality in the firm. The authors similarly concluded that women have greater difficulty in career advancement and lower salaries than males, and this was less so when the position of leader was held by a female figure. Finally, they found that seeing a woman achieve leadership in a company encourages women workers to fight for it.

Gender beliefs and stereotypes shape and affect various processes that lead individuals to a position of power and authority in an organizational institution. Beliefs based on gender stereotypes lead to a number of obstacles to reaching a leadership position. Such barriers to fall do not arise, however, in the male course (Ridgeway, 2001). Gender roles influence workplace behaviors and judgments. Ridgeway (2001) presents Joseph Berger's theory of expectation states that when they come together, individuals tend to look for clues as to how they should behave. The theory is based on the fact that behavior and assessment of workplace tasks is influenced by men's expectations of women and vice versa. Therefore, gender stereotypes end up influencing not only behavior but also evaluation (Ridgeway, 2001).

When a woman reaches a leadership position, there are obstacles that are created in order not to ease her path as a leader. First, the woman ends up having the same authority as the male figure. So you have to be more authoritative, which will provoke your performance as a leader, as your subordinates will not evaluate you positively. In works considered ideal for male aptitudes, this succession of events proves to be a constant (Ridgeway, 2001).

The fact that women break with existing expectations and stereotypes about them can create reactions as manipulated assessments of their performance as a leader. That is, due to the stereotypical look at them that they should not be performing that function, the work of the female figure may suffer intentional or unintentional misrepresentations. Women do not have to be on par with men to prove they can, women do twice as much (Eagly & Karau, 2002).

The authors concluded that both women and men are equally effective as leaders. However, there was a slight tendency to rate women as less able, especially in roles normally assigned to men. This tendency increased when women exercised their authority in a direct, assertive and somewhat dictatorial manner. Men who did the same did not suffer the same dislike from their subordinates. They also concluded that women effectively perform the position of leader (Eagly & Karau, 2002). In addition to seeing men being considered better for a particular position, women will be seen by their peers as violators of the hierarchy established so far. Given this, your work will become more challenging. However, in contexts where women work in a child-directed or female-oriented organization, resistance to a female leader is hopelessly lower (Ridgeway, 2001). Eagly and Karau (2002) state that it is essential to unravel the differences between men and women as leaders. The authors' intent with the study was to find out if one gender was more effective than another in leading roles in different contexts. It was also one of the goals to understand if there were gender conditions that influenced their performance.

When the task is considered masculine, given gender stereotypes, women are expected to do less effective work than men. However, more and more women are fighting against this system and being given opportunities to lead based on their qualifications and hard work. Women now need the help of the eternal perpetuators of stereotypes, the advertising industry.

Final considerations

The advertising industry has great economic, social and cultural power around the world and therefore has an impact on society. Thus, the way women and men are portrayed by marketers and advertising professionals is an important issue that has been the subject of many studies over the last four decades. Sexism present in society stimulates the emergence of stereotypes and stereotypes present in advertising stimulate sexism present in it. This is a vicious cycle that needs to be addressed in view of the objective of promoting gender equality. Inequality will not only continue to spread female backwardness, but the global one.

Studies indicate that women face more difficulties in business (management, accounting, finance, behavioral sciences and people management) than their male counterparts due to stereotyped considerations about their role, which has negative consequences on on-site opportunities. Therefore, leadership emerges in this research with an enhanced role and as a crucial tool in supporting marketing management (in particular the case of communication and advertising) and its relationship to sexism and gender equality. By way of example, female leadership is an evolving topic, although a number of stereotypes and a vision of leadership linked to male characteristics still prevail. This study aimed, in a conceptual domain, to contribute to the understanding of this phenomenon, bringing together some of the main contributions of the literature.

Future studies should lead researchers to empirically test the role of leadership in shaping organizations' communication policies and plans (in particular, the promotion of gender equality). From an interdisciplinary perspective, this study presents some insights into marketing and organizational behavior (notably in terms of consumer behavior, leadership, and external and interactive marketing). As future research, it is also necessary to understand to what extent the stereotypes in advertising influence women's rise, both in the area of ​​leadership and in other areas of marketing management, through studies within organizations. Future work, and in an empirical domain, should lead to the elaboration of focus groups and some in-depth interviews bringing together the main decision-making agents (from the company's perspective) and some consumers (from the perspective of demand).

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  16 Mar 2020
• Date of issue
  2020

History

• Received
  28 Sept 2018
• Accepted
  24 June 2019