A antropologia redescobre a sexualidade: um comentário teórico

Vance, Carole S.

doi:10.1590/S0103-73311995000100001

Resumos

Apesar da reputação de ser aberta à pesquisa sobre a sexualidade, a Antropologia como disciplina só relutantemente tem dado apoio a esse trabalho. A pesquisa e a teoria antropológicas desenvolveram-se lentamente, partilhando um paradigma teórico estável (o modelo de influência cultural) desde os anos 20 até os 90. Embora fosse além das estruturas determinista e essencialista ainda comuns na biomedicina, o trabalho antropológico ainda assim considerava aspectos importantes da sexualidade como universais e transculturais. A teoria da construção social propôs um desafio aos modelos antropológicos tradicionais, e a partir de 1975 tem sido responsável por uma explosão de trabalhos inovadores sobre a sexualidade, tanto na Antropologia como em outras disciplinas. As origens e implicações teóricas da teoria construtivista são investigadas. A competição cada vez maior entre a influência cultural e os paradigmas construtivistas foi alterada pelo surgimento da AIDS e do subseqüente apoio mais substancial para a pesquisa sobre a sexualidade. Por bm lado, a expansão do financiamento às pesquisas ameaça fortalecer os modelos essencialistas em contextos biomédicos e os modelos de influência cultural na Antropologia. Por outro, as complexidades e as ambigüidades inerentes à sexualidade estudada podem revelar a força das abordagens construtivistas e estimular o desenvolvimento da pesquisa e da teoria na Antropologia.

Despite its reputation for openness to research on sexuality, anthropology as a discipline has only reluctantly supported such work. Anthropological research and theory developed slowly, sharing a stable theoretical paradigm (the cultural influence model) from the 1920s to the 19908. Moving beyond determinist and essentialist frameworks still common in biomedicine, anthropological work nevertheless viewed important aspects of sexuality as universal and transcultural. Social construction theory has offered a challenge to tradit.ional anthropological models and has been responsible for a recent burst of innovative work in sexuality, both in anthropology and in other disciplines, since 1975. The theoretical roots and implications of constructionist theory are explored. The intensifymg competition between cultural influence and constructionist paradigms has been altered by the appearance of AIDS and the subsequent increased support to: research on sexuality. On the one hand, the expansion in funding threatens to strengthen essentialist models in biomedical contexts and cultural influence models in anthropology. On the other hand, the complexities and ambiguities inherent in the sexuality under study may both reveal the strengths of constructioriist approaches and spur the development of research and theory in anthropology.

Malgré la reputation d'être ou verte à la recherche sur la sexualité, l' Anthropologie offre son appui à ce travail avec résistance. La recherche et la théorie anthropologique se sont developpées lentement en partageant un modele théorique stable (le modele d' influence culturel) des les années 20 jusqu' aux années 90. Bien que cela soit au-delà des structures déterministe et essentialiste encore frequentes dans la Biomédicine, le travail anthropologique considerait les aspects importants de la Sexualité comme universaux et transculturels. La théorie de la construction sociale a proposé un défi aux modeles anthropologiques traditionnels et, des 1975, elle est reponsable par une explosion de travaux inovateurs sur la sexualité, dans l' Anthropologie et d'autres disciplines. Les origines et les implications théoriques de la théorie constructiviste sont investiguées. La compétition, chaque fois plus grande entre l'influence culturelle et les paradigmes constructivistes se sont altérés avec l'avenement du Sida et du subséquent appui substantiel a la recherche sur la sexualité. D'un côté, l' expansion financiere aux recherches menace consolider les modeles essentialistes dans les contextes biomédicales et les modeles d'influence culturelle dans l' Anthropologie. D'un autre côté, les compléxités et les ambiguités inherentes à la sexualité peuvent annoncer la force des abordages constructivistes et stimuler le développement de la recherche et de la théorie dans l' Anthropologie

A antropologia redescobre a sexualidade: um comentário teórico^* * Gostaria de agradecer Frances M. Doughty pelas conversas proveitosas, sugestões editoriais inestimáveis e estímulo generoso. Sou grata a Shirley Lindenbaum pelos seus comentários, paciência e entusiasmo. Meus agradecimentos também a Lís Duggan, Gayle Rubin, David Schwartz, Gilbert Zicklin, Jonathan Katz, Janice Irvine, Ann Snitow, Nan Hunter, Jennifer Terry, Jacqueline Urla, Libbett Crandon, William Hawkeswood, Jeanne Bergman, Faye Ginsburg e aos revisores anônimos de Social Science and Medicine pelos seus comentários. Agradeço a Pamela Brown-Peterside pela assistência na pesquisa. Este artigo foi inicialmente apresentado na mesaredonda "A Antropologia Redescobre o Sexo", na reunião anual da American Anthropological Association em 1988. Agradeço a coordenadora do encontro, Shirley Lindenbaum, e aos participantes do mesmo pelo diálogo estimulante. Os comentários feitos pelos membros do Colóquio de Antropologia Médica na Universidade de Columbia também me foram bastante úteis. A responsabilidade pelas opiniões expressas neste artigo é inteiramente minha. 1 A. Goldenweiser, "Sex and Primitive Society", in V. I. Calverton e S. D. Schmlhausen, eds., Sex in Civilization, Nova Iorque, Macaulay Company, 1929, p. 53. 2. L. Fisher, "Relationships and Sexuality in Contexts and Culture", in B. B. Wolman e J. Money, OOs., Handbook of Sexuality, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1980, p. 164; e D. L. Davis e R. G. Whitten, "The Cross-Cultural Study ofHuman Sexuality",Ann. Rev. Anthropol. vol. 16, pp. 69-98, 1987. 3. A julgar pela minha experiência pessoal, a resistência pode ter efeitos paradoxais. Em 1977, a solicitação de uma subvenção para completar uma bibliografia comentada antropológica convencional das influências bioculturais sobre a sexualidade me foi negada sob o pretexto de que a investigadora "era jovem demais para realizar pesquisa sobre este tópico" e, sendo incapaz de ler japonês, "não podia ler a nova e importante literatura sobre os macacos japoneses no original". Longe de me desencorajarem, esses comentários aumentaram ainda mais o meu interesse, pois as reações voláteis dos antropólogos pareciam merecer, pelo menos, atenção igual à dispensada ao material transcultural. 4. C. S. Vance, "Gender Sistems, Ideology and Sex Research", in A. Snitow et alii, eds., Powers of De.fire, Nova lorque, Monthly Review Press, .1983, p. 271; e J. Irvine, Disorders of Desire, Filadélfia, Temple University Press, 1990. 5. Para textos básicos, ver 1. Katz, Gay American History, Nova lorque, CrowelI, 1976; J. 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Anthropology rediscovers sexuality: a theoretical comment

L'anthropologie redecouvre la sexualité: un document théorique

Carole S. Vance

Professora do Departamento de Ciências Sociomédicas, Escola de Saúde Pública da Universidade de Colúmbia, 600 West 168 Street, New York, NY 10032, U.S.A

RESUMO

Apesar da reputação de ser aberta à pesquisa sobre a sexualidade, a Antropologia como disciplina só relutantemente tem dado apoio a esse trabalho. A pesquisa e a teoria antropológicas desenvolveram-se lentamente, partilhando um paradigma teórico estável (o modelo de influência cultural) desde os anos 20 até os 90. Embora fosse além das estruturas determinista e essencialista ainda comuns na biomedicina, o trabalho antropológico ainda assim considerava aspectos importantes da sexualidade como universais e transculturais. A teoria da construção social propôs um desafio aos modelos antropológicos tradicionais, e a partir de 1975 tem sido responsável por uma explosão de trabalhos inovadores sobre a sexualidade, tanto na Antropologia como em outras disciplinas. As origens e implicações teóricas da teoria construtivista são investigadas. A competição cada vez maior entre a influência cultural e os paradigmas construtivistas foi alterada pelo surgimento da AIDS e do subseqüente apoio mais substancial para a pesquisa sobre a sexualidade. Por bm lado, a expansão do financiamento às pesquisas ameaça fortalecer os modelos essencialistas em contextos biomédicos e os modelos de influência cultural na Antropologia. Por outro, as complexidades e as ambigüidades inerentes à sexualidade estudada podem revelar a força das abordagens construtivistas e estimular o desenvolvimento da pesquisa e da teoria na Antropologia.

ABSTRACT

Despite its reputation for openness to research on sexuality, anthropology as a discipline has only reluctantly supported such work. Anthropological research and theory developed slowly, sharing a stable theoretical paradigm (the cultural influence model) from the 1920s to the 19908. Moving beyond determinist and essentialist frameworks still common in biomedicine, anthropological work nevertheless viewed important aspects of sexuality as universal and transcultural. Social construction theory has offered a challenge to tradit.ional anthropological models and has been responsible for a recent burst of innovative work in sexuality, both in anthropology and in other disciplines, since 1975. The theoretical roots and implications of constructionist theory are explored. The intensifymg competition between cultural influence and constructionist paradigms has been altered by the appearance of AIDS and the subsequent increased support to: research on sexuality. On the one hand, the expansion in funding threatens to strengthen essentialist models in biomedical contexts and cultural influence models in anthropology. On the other hand, the complexities and ambiguities inherent in the sexuality under study may both reveal the strengths of constructioriist approaches and spur the development of research and theory in anthropology.

RÉSUMÉ

Malgré la reputation d'être ou verte à la recherche sur la sexualité, l' Anthropologie offre son appui à ce travail avec résistance. La recherche et la théorie anthropologique se sont developpées lentement en partageant un modele théorique stable (le modele d' influence culturel) des les années 20 jusqu' aux années 90. Bien que cela soit au-delà des structures déterministe et essentialiste encore frequentes dans la Biomédicine, le travail anthropologique considerait les aspects importants de la Sexualité comme universaux et transculturels. La théorie de la construction sociale a proposé un défi aux modeles anthropologiques traditionnels et, des 1975, elle est reponsable par une explosion de travaux inovateurs sur la sexualité, dans l' Anthropologie et d'autres disciplines. Les origines et les implications théoriques de la théorie constructiviste sont investiguées. La compétition, chaque fois plus grande entre l'influence culturelle et les paradigmes constructivistes se sont altérés avec l'avenement du Sida et du subséquent appui substantiel a la recherche sur la sexualité. D'un côté, l' expansion financiere aux recherches menace consolider les modeles essentialistes dans les contextes biomédicales et les modeles d'influence culturelle dans l' Anthropologie. D'un autre côté, les compléxités et les ambiguités inherentes à la sexualité peuvent annoncer la force des abordages constructivistes et stimuler le développement de la recherche et de la théorie dans l' Anthropologie.

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¹
A. Goldenweiser, "Sex and Primitive Society", in V. I. Calverton e S. D. Schmlhausen, eds., Sex in Civilization, Nova Iorque, Macaulay Company, 1929, p. 53.
²
L. Fisher, "Relationships and Sexuality in Contexts and Culture", in B. B. Wolman e J. Money, OOs., Handbook of Sexuality, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1980, p. 164; e D. L. Davis e R. G. Whitten, "The Cross-Cultural Study ofHuman Sexuality",Ann. Rev. Anthropol. vol. 16, pp. 69-98, 1987.
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6. 1. H. Gagnon e W. Simon, Sexual CondUCl: The Social Sources of Human Sexuality, Chicago, Aldine, 1973;
K. Plummer, "Symbolic Interactionism and Sexual Conduct: An Emergent Perspective", in M. Brake, ed., Human Sexual Relalions, Nova lorque, Pantheon, 1982.
⁷
L. Duggan, "From Instincts to Politics: Writing the History of Sexuality in the U.S.", Journal of Sexual Research, voI. 27, p. 95,1990.
⁸
Para a Antropologia, ver R. Reiter, ed., Toward anAnthropology ofWomen, Nova Iorque, Monthly Review Press, 1975; M. Z. Rosaldo e L. Lamphere. eds., Women. Culture and Society, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1974; L. Lamphere, "Anthropology: A Review Essay, Signs, voI. 2, p. 612,1977; R. Rapp, "Anthropology: A Review Essay", Signs, voI. 4, p.497, 1979;J. M. Atkinson, "Anthropology: A Review Essay", Signs, voI. 8, p. 236, 1982; H. L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1988.
⁹
R. Bleier, Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and its Theories on Women, Nova Iorque, Pergamon Press. 1984; A. Fausto-Sterling, Myths ofGender: Biological Theories about Women and Men, Nova Iorque, Basic Books, 1985; J. Sayers. Biological Politics: Feminist and Anti-Feminist Perspectives, Nova Iorque, Tavistock Publication, 1982; M. Lowe e R. Hubbard, Women 's Nature: Rationalizations of lnequality, Nova Iorque, Pergamon Press, 1983; R. Hubbard, et alli, eds., Biological Woman: The Convenient Myth, Cambridge, Schenkman, 1982; E. Tobach e B. Rosoff, eds., Genes and Gender, Nova Iorque, Gordian Press, vols. 1-4, 1978.
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¹¹
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*

Gostaria de agradecer Frances M. Doughty pelas conversas proveitosas, sugestões editoriais inestimáveis e estímulo generoso. Sou grata a Shirley Lindenbaum pelos seus comentários, paciência e entusiasmo. Meus agradecimentos também a Lís Duggan, Gayle Rubin, David Schwartz, Gilbert Zicklin, Jonathan Katz, Janice Irvine, Ann Snitow, Nan Hunter, Jennifer Terry, Jacqueline Urla, Libbett Crandon, William Hawkeswood, Jeanne Bergman, Faye Ginsburg e aos revisores anônimos de

Social Science and Medicine pelos seus comentários. Agradeço a Pamela Brown-Peterside pela assistência na pesquisa. Este artigo foi inicialmente apresentado na mesaredonda "A Antropologia Redescobre o Sexo", na reunião anual da American Anthropological Association em 1988. Agradeço a coordenadora do encontro, Shirley Lindenbaum, e aos participantes do mesmo pelo diálogo estimulante. Os comentários feitos pelos membros do Colóquio de Antropologia Médica na Universidade de Columbia também me foram bastante úteis. A responsabilidade pelas opiniões expressas neste artigo é inteiramente minha.

1 A. Goldenweiser, "Sex and Primitive Society",

in V. I. Calverton e S. D. Schmlhausen, eds.,

Sex in Civilization, Nova Iorque, Macaulay Company, 1929, p. 53.

2. L. Fisher, "Relationships and Sexuality in Contexts and Culture",

in B. B. Wolman e J. Money, OOs.,

Handbook of Sexuality, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1980, p. 164; e D. L. Davis e R. G. Whitten, "The Cross-Cultural Study ofHuman Sexuality",Ann.

Rev. Anthropol. vol. 16, pp. 69-98, 1987.

3. A julgar pela minha experiência pessoal, a resistência pode ter efeitos paradoxais. Em 1977, a solicitação de uma subvenção para completar uma bibliografia comentada antropológica convencional das influências bioculturais sobre a sexualidade me foi negada sob o pretexto de que a investigadora "era jovem demais para realizar pesquisa sobre este tópico" e, sendo incapaz de ler japonês, "não podia ler a nova e importante literatura sobre os macacos japoneses no original". Longe de me desencorajarem, esses comentários aumentaram ainda mais o meu interesse, pois as reações voláteis dos antropólogos pareciam merecer, pelo menos, atenção igual à dispensada ao material transcultural.

4. C. S. Vance, "Gender Sistems, Ideology and Sex Research",

in A. Snitow

et alii, eds.,

Powers of De.fire, Nova lorque, Monthly Review Press, .1983, p. 271; e J. Irvine,

Disorders of Desire, Filadélfia, Temple University Press, 1990.

5. Para textos básicos, ver 1. Katz,

Gay American History, Nova lorque, CrowelI, 1976; J. Weeks,

Coming Out: Homosexual Politics in Britain from the 19th Century to the Presenl, Londres, Quartet Books, 1977; R. A. Padgug, "Sexual Matters: On Conceptualizing Sexuality in History",

Radical History Review, voI. 20, pp. 3-23, 1979; J. Weeks,

Sexo Polilics and Society: The Regulalion of Sexuality since 1800, Nova lorque, Longman, 1981; A. Snitow

el aUi, eds.,

Powers of Desire..., Op.cil.; J. Katz,

Gay Lesbian Almanac, Nova lorque, Harper and Row, 1983; C. S. Vance, ed.,

Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality, Nova lorque, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984; J. Weeks,

Sexuality, Londres, Tavistock, 1986; C. Peiss e C. Simmons, eds.,

Passion and Power: Sexuality in HÜlory, Filadélfia, Temple University Press, 1989; J. D'Emilio e E. B. Freedman,

Intima te Malters: A Social HÜlory of Sexuality in America, Nova lorque, Harper and Row, 1988; D. Altman

et aUi, eds.,

Homosexuality. Which Homosexuality?, Amsterdã, An Dekker/Schorer, 1989; M. B. Duberman

et alii, eds.,

Hidden from Hislory: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Pa.ft, Nova lorque, New American Library, 1989.

6. 1. H. Gagnon e W. Simon,

Sexual CondUCl: The Social Sources of Human Sexuality, Chicago, Aldine, 1973; K. Plummer, "Symbolic Interactionism and Sexual Conduct: An Emergent Perspective",

in M. Brake, ed.,

Human Sexual Relalions, Nova lorque, Pantheon, 1982.

7. L. Duggan, "From Instincts to Politics: Writing the History of Sexuality in the U.S.",

Journal of Sexual Research, voI. 27, p. 95,1990.

8. Para a Antropologia, ver R. Reiter, ed.,

Toward anAnthropology ofWomen, Nova Iorque, Monthly Review Press, 1975; M. Z. Rosaldo e L. Lamphere. eds.,

Women. Culture and Society, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1974; L. Lamphere, "Anthropology: A Review Essay,

Signs, voI. 2, p. 612,1977; R. Rapp, "Anthropology: A Review Essay",

Signs, voI. 4, p.497, 1979;J. M. Atkinson, "Anthropology: A Review Essay",

Signs, voI. 8, p. 236, 1982; H. L. Moore,

Feminism and Anthropology, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1988.

9. R. Bleier,

Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and its Theories on Women, Nova Iorque, Pergamon Press. 1984; A. Fausto-Sterling,

Myths ofGender: Biological Theories about Women and Men, Nova Iorque, Basic Books, 1985; J. Sayers.

Biological Politics: Feminist and Anti-Feminist Perspectives, Nova Iorque, Tavistock Publication, 1982; M. Lowe e R. Hubbard,

Women 's Nature: Rationalizations of lnequality, Nova Iorque, Pergamon Press, 1983; R. Hubbard,

et alli, eds.,

Biological Woman: The Convenient Myth, Cambridge, Schenkman, 1982; E. Tobach e B. Rosoff, eds.,

Genes and Gender, Nova Iorque, Gordian Press, vols. 1-4, 1978.

10. S. Harding,

The Science Que.ftion in Femini.fm, Ithaca, ComeU University Press, 1986; L. Schiebinger,

The Mind Ha.f No Sex: Women in the Origin of Modem Science, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1989; B. Ehrenreich e D. English,

For her Own Good: 150 Years of Experts' Advice to Women, Nova Iorque, Doubleday, 1979; G. 1. Barker-Benfield,

The Horrors of the Half-Known Life, Nova Iorque, Harper and Row, 1976; D. Haraway,

Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World ofModern Science, Nova Iorque, Routledge, 1989; L. J. Jordanova,

Sexual Visions: lmages ofGender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Madison. University ofWisconsin Press, 1989; E. F. Keller,

Reflections on Gender and Science, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1984; S. Harding e M. Hintikka, eds.,

DiscoveringReality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics. Methodology and Philosophy of Science, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1983.

11. G. Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex",

in R. Reiter, ed.

Toward an Anthropology ofWomen, Nova Iorque, Monthly Review Press, 1975, p. 157.

12.

Idem, p. 158.

13.

Idem, p. 159.

14. G. Rubin, "Thinking Sex",

in C. S. Vance, ed.,

Pleasure and Danger..., op. cit., p. 267.

15. J. Katz,

GayAmericanHistory..., op. cit.; J. Weeks,

Coming Out..., op. cit.; 1. Weeks,

Sex, Politics

and...,op. cit.; J. Katz,

Gay Lesbian Almanac..., op. cit.

16. M. Foucault,

The Hi.ftOry ofSexuality, Nova Iorque, Pantheon, 1978.

17. M. McIntosh, "The Homosexual Role",

Social Problems, vol. 16, pp. 182-92, 1968. 18. J. Weeks,

Coming Out..., op. cit.

19. J. Katz,

Gay American History..., op. cit.

20. J. Katz.

Gay Lesbian Almanac.................. op. cil.

21. N. Sahli, "Smashing: Women's Relationships before the Fali",

Chrysalis, vol. 8, 1979; L. Rupp. "'Imagine My Surprise': Women's Relationships in Mid-Twentieth Century America",

Fronliers. n° 5,1980; L. Faderman,

Surpassing lhe Love ofMen, Nova lorque. WiIlian Morrow, 1981; G. Rubin, "Introdução",

in R. Vivien,A

Woman Appeared to Me. Weatherby Lake. Missouri, Naiad Press, 1979.

22. G. Herdt.

Guardians oflhe Flules, Nova lorque. McGraw HiIl, 1981; G. Herdl, "Semen Transaclion in Sambia Culture",

in G. Herdl, ed..

Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, Berkeley, University of California Press. 1984; G. Herdl,

The Sambia: Ritual and Gender in New Guinea, Nova lorque, Holt, Rinehardt, Winslon. 1987.

23. M. B. Duberman

et alii, eds..

Hiddenfrom History..., op. cit.; K. Plummer, ed.,

The Making ofthe Modern Homosexual, Londres, Hutchinson. 1981; J. D'Emilio,

Sexual Polilics. Sexual Communities, Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1983; A. Bray.

Homosexuality in Renais.wnce England. Londres. Gay Men's Press, 1982; E. Newton, "The Mythic Mannish Lesbian. Radclyffe Hall and the NewWoman".Signs. vol. 9. pp. 567-75.1984; M. Davis eE. Kennedy, "Oral History and the Study of Sexualily in lhe Lesbian Community: Buffalo, New Y ork, 1940-1960",

FeminÜt Sludies, vol. 12. pp. 7-26, 1986; M. Vicinus, "'They Wonder to which Sex I Belong': The Historical Roots oflhe Modern Lesbian Idenlity".

in D. Altman

et alli, eds..

Homosexuality. Which Homosexuality?..., op. cit., p.171; K. Gerard e G. Hekma, eds., "The Pursuit of Sodomy: Male Homosexuality in Renaissance and Enlighlenment Europe".

Journal of Homosexuality. n° 16 (número especial), 1988.

24. C. Péiss, "'Charity Girls' and City Pleasures: Historical Notes on Working Class Sexuality",

in A. Snitow

et alli, eds.,

Power.ç of Desire..., op. cit., p. 131; C. Peiss,

Cheap Amusements: Working Women and LeÜure in Turn-of-the-Century New York, Filadélfia, Temple University Press, 1986; C. Stansell,

City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860, Nova 10rque, 1986; E. K. Trimberger, "Feminism, Men and Modero Love: Greenwich VilIage, 1900-1925",

in A. Snitow

et alli, eds.,

Powers of Desire..., op. cit., p. 131; 1. Katz, "The Invention of Heterosexuality",

Socialist Review, vol. 20, pp. 7-34,1990.

25. J. Weeks,

Sex, Politics..., op. cit.,; C. Peiss e C. Simmons, eds.,

Passion and Power... op. cit.; J. R. Walkowitz,

Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Cla.çs, and the State, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980; E. J. Bristow,

Vice and Vigilance: Purity Movements in Britain since 1700, Nova Jersey, Rowman and Littlefield, 1977; D. Pivar,

Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868-1900, Connecticut, Greenwood Press, 1972; A. M. Brandt,

No Magic Bul/et: A Social History ofVeneral Disease in the United States since 1880, Nova lorque, Oxford University Press, 1985; W. Kendrick,

The Secret Museum, Nova lorque, Viking, 1987; L. Gordon,

Woman's Body, Woman's Right: A Social History of Birth Contrai in America, Nova lorque, Penguin, 1974.

26. Não se sugere neste artigo que as formas mais radicais da teoria da construção social sejam necessariamente as melhores, embora o exercício de desconstruir a sexualidade, urna das categorias mais essenciais, tenha freqüentemente um efeito eletrizante e energizante sobre o pensamento das pessoas. Se tal grau de desconstrução pode ser sustentado de urna maneira plausível, já é outra questão.

27. c. S. Ford e F. A. Beach,

Patterns ofSexual Behavior, Nova Iorque, Harper and Row, 1951; L. Minturn

et alii, "Culture Patterning of Sexual Beliefs and Behavior",

Ethnology, vol. 15, 1976, p. 409; G. J. Broude e S. J. Greene, "Cross-Cultural Codes on Twenty Sexual Attitudes and Practices",

Ethnology, vol. 8, 1969, p. 301; J. P. Gray, "Cross-Cultural Factors Associated with Sexual Foreplay",

Joumal ofSocial Psychology, vol. 3,1980; S. G. Frayser,

VarietiesofSexual Experience: AnAnthropological Perspective on Human Sexuality, New Haven, HRAF Press, 1985.

28. M. Mead,

Coming of Age in Samoa, Nova Iorque, Morrow, 1923; B. Malinowski,

The Sexual Life of Savage in North-Western Melanesia, (Ia ed. 1929), Nova Iorque, Halcyon House, 1941; I. Schapera,

Married Life in an African Tribe, Nova Iorque, Sheridan House, 1941; W. H. Goodenough, "Premarital Freedom on Truk: Theory and Practice",

American Anthropologist, vol. 51, 1949; R. M. Berndt e C. Berndt,

Sexual Behavior in Western Arnhem Land, Nova Iorque, Viking Fund, 1951; R. A. Levine, "Gussi Sex Offenses: A Study in Social Control",

American Anthropologist, vol. 61, 1959; A. Howard e I. Howard, "Premarital Sex and Social Control among the Rotumans",

American Anthropologist, vol. 66, 1964; W. Davenport, "Sexual Patterns and their Regulation in a Society of the South West Pacific",

in F. Beach, ed.,

Sex and Behavior, Nova Iorque, Wiley, 1965, p. 164; R. C. Suggs,

Marquesan Sexual Behavior, Nova Iorque, Harcourt, Brace and World, 1966; W. A. Lessa, "Sexual Behavior", in Ulihi:

A Designfor Living, Nova York, Holt, Rinehardt, Winston, 1966; D. S. Marshall e R. C. Suggs, eds.,

Human Sexual Behavior, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1972; K. G. Heider, "Dani Sexuality: A Low-Energy System",

Man, vol. 11, pp. 188-201, 1976; D. S. Marshall, "Too Much in Mangaia",

in C. Gordon e G. Johnson, eds.,

Readings in Human Sexuality: Contemporary Perspectives. Nova Iorque. Holt. Rinehardt, Winston. 1976. p. 217.

29. A. Goldenweiser. "Sex and Primitive...",

in V. F. Calverton e S. D. Schmalhausen. eds..

Sex and Civilization.... op. cit.; G. Bateson. "Sex and Culture",

Annals ofthe New YorkAcademy ofScience. vol. 47. 1947; G. P. Murdock, "The Social Regulation of Sexual Behavior".

in P. H. Hoch e J. Zubin, eds..

Psychosexual Development in Health and Disease. Nova Iorque. Grulle e Stratton. 1949, p. 256; J. J. Honigman, "An Antbropological Approach to Sex",

Social Problems, vol. 2, 1954; P. H. Gebbard, "Human Sexual Behavior: A Summary Statement".

in C. Gordon e G. Johnson. eds.,

Readings in Human Sexuality..., op. cit.. p. 95.

30. O trabalho de Heider sobre os danis é uma exceção no que diz respeito à conceituação de níveis variáveis de energia sexual.

31. M. Mead. "Cultural Determinants of Sexual Behaviors",

in W. C. Young. ed.,

Sex and Infernal Secretions. Filadélfia. Williams and Wilkins. 1961. p. 1.433.

32. S. G. Frayser,

Varieties o/Sexual..., op. cit.

33. Uma tentativa diferente de assimilação é encontrada na afirmativa de que o debate entre os essencialistas e os construtivistas sociais sobre a sexualidade seria uma repetição da controvérsia natureza-educação. Esta é uma compreensão profundamente errônea da teoria da construção social. Nos debates sobre natureza-educação, os pesquisadores propõem mecanismos biológicos ou culturais alternativos para explicar os fenômenos que observam. Atualmente, a maioria dos observadores concorda que o comportamento humano é produzido por uma complexa interação de fatores biológicos e culturais; eles divergem quanto ao peso relativo que atribuem a cada um desses fatores. Embora possa ser apropriado encontrar alguma semelhança entre os essencialistas e o campo da natureza, é errado equiparar a construção social ao campo da educação. A teoria da construção social não está simplesmente propondo a causalidade cultural. Além disso, e o que é mais importante, ela nos encoraja a desconstruir e examinar o comportamento ou os processos que tanto o campo da natureza como o da educação reificaram e querem "explicar". A construção social sugere que o objeto de estudo merece, pelo menos, tanta atenção analítica quanto o mecanismo causal pressentido.

34. S. G. Frayser,

Varieties 01 Sexual..., op. cit.; F. E. Mascia-Lees, eds., "Human Sexuality in Biocultural Perspective",

Medical Anthropology, vol. 11, 1989.

35. E. Newton.

Mother Camp: F errwle Impersonators in America. Chicago. University of Chicago Press. 1979; P. Caplan, ed.,

The Cultural Construction ofSexuality. Londres. Tavistock. 1987; M. Davis e E. Kennedy. "The Reproduction ofButch-Fem Roles: A Social ConstructionistApproach".

in C. Peiss e C. Simmons. eds..

Passion and Power op. cit.. p. 241; H. Whitehead. 'The Bow and the Burden

Strap: A New Look at Institutionalized Homosexuality in Native North America".

in S. B. Ortner e H. Whitehead. eds..

Sexual Meanings, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 1981. p. 80; E. Blackwood. ed..

Anthropology and Homosexuality. Nova lorque. The Haworth Press. 1986; P. Fry. "Male Homosexuality and SpiritPossession in Brazil",Joumal

ofHomosexuality. vol. 11. pp. 137-53. 1985; 1. M. Carrier. "Mexican Male Bisexuality",

Journal of Homosexuality. vol. 11, pp. 75-85. 1985; C. S. Vance. "Negotiating Sex and Gender in the Attomey General's Commission on Pomography".

in F. Ginsburg e A. L. Tsung, eds..

Uncertain Terms: Negotiating Gender inAmerican Culture. Boston. Beacon Press. 1990. p. 118; R. Parker.

Bodies, Pleasures, and Passions: Sexual Culture in Contemporary Brazil. Boston. Beacon Press. 1991.

36. S. G. Frayser.

Varieties of Sexual... op. cit.; T. Gregor.

Anxious Pleasures: The Sexual Lives ofan Amazonian People. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985; C. B. Cohen e F. E. Mascia-Lees, "Lasers in the Jungle: Reconfiguring Questions of Human and Non-Human Primate Sexuality".

Medical Anthropology. vol. 11, 1989; F. E. Mascia-Lees

et alii. "Investigating the Biocultural Dimensions of Human Sexual Behavior".

Medical Anthropology, vol. li, 1989; S. G. Frayser. "Sexual and Reproductive Relationships: Cross-Cultural Evidence and Biosocial Implications".

Medical Anthropology. vol. lI, 1989; T. Perper. "Theories and Observations on Sexual Selection and Female Choice in Human Beings".

Medical Anthropology. vol. 11. 1989.

37. A. 'Kinsey

et alii, Sexual Behavior in Human Male, Filadélfia, Saunders, 1948; A. Kinsey

et alii,Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, Filadélfia, Saunders, 1953.

38. C. F. Turner

et alii, eds.,

AIDS: Sexual Behavior and lntravenous Drug Use, Committee on AIDS Research and the Behavioral, Social and Statistical Sciences National Research Council, Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, 1989, capo 2; W. Booth, "Asking America about its Sex Life",

Science, vol. 242, 20/1/1989; W. Booth, "WHO Seeks Global Data on Sexual Practices",

Science, vol. 244, 28/4/1989.

39. Isto não quer dizer que a pesquisa não esteja sendo realizada por cientistas sociais fora das instituições médicas, nem que os cientistas sociais também não contribuam para estudos implementados nas Escolas de Medicina, ainda que geralmente desempenhando um papel secundário. Entretanto, o simples número de inquéritos populacionais com orientação biomédica, ao lado do tamanho considerável de suas amostras e orçamentos, ameaça ofuscar e suplantar a pesquisa da sexualidade realizada por investigadores com uma orientação menos biomédica. Além disso, atribui-se mais aos médicos do que aos cientistas sociais autoridade para falar sobre o corpo. Diante disso, as perspectivas cada vez mais essencialistas, que estruturam a sexualidade em relação à AIDS como uma questão corporal, irão aumentar automaticamente a legitimidade das vozes e dos textos médicos.

40. M. Gever, "Pictures of Sickness: Atuart Marshall' s

Bright Eyes", in D. Crimp, ed.,

AIDS: CulturalAnalysis, Cultural Activism, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1989.

41. S. L. Gilman,

Disease and Representation: [mages of lllness from Madness to AlDS, Ithaca, Comell University Press, 1988.

42. D. A. Feldman D.A. e T. M. Johnson,

The Social Dimension of AlDS: Method and Theory, Nova Iorque, Praeger, 1986; E. M. Gorman, ''The AIDS Epidemic in San Francisco: Epidemiological and Anthropological Perspectives",

in C. James

et alii, eds.,

Anthropology and Epidemiology, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1986, p. 157; M. C. Bateson e R. Goldsby,

Thinking AlDS: The Social Response to Biological Threat, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1988; R. Bolton, "The AIDS Pandemic: A Global Emergency",

Medical Anthropology, n° 10 (número especial), 1989; P. A. Marshall e L. A. Bennett, eds., "Culture and Behavior in the AIDS Epidemic",

Medical Anthropology Quarterly, vol. 4 (número especial), 1990.

43. R. Parker, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in Urban Brazil",

Medica/ Anthrop%gy Quater/y, vol. I, pp. 155-75, 1987; S. O. Murray e K. Payne, "The Social Classification of AIDS in American Epidemiology",

Medica/ Anthrop%gy, vol. 10, pp. 115-28, 1989; J. M. Carrier, "Sexual Behavior and the Spread of AIDS in Mexico",

MedicalAnthrop%gy, vol. 10, pp. 129-42, 1989; M. Singer,

et alii, "SIOA: The Economic, Social and Cultural Context of AIOS among Latinos",

Medical Anthrop%gy Quater/y, vol. 4, pp..72-114, 1990; S. Kane, "AIOS, Addiction and Condom Use: Sources of Sexual Risk for Heterosexual Women",

Journa/ of Sex Research, vol. 27, pp. 427-44, 1990; M. Asencio, "Puerto Rico Adolescents Playing by the Rules", trabalho apresentado na reunião anual da American Anthropological Association, 1990; W. G. Hawkeswood, "'I'm a Black Gay Man who Just Happens to Be Gay': The Sexuality of BIack Gay Men", trabalho apresentado na reunião anual da American Anthropological Association, 1990.

44. C. Patton.

Sex and Germs. Boston. South End Press. 1985; D. Altman.

AIDS in the Mind of

America: The Social. Political and Psychological Impact of a New Epidemic. Nova Iorque. Anchor Press/DoublOOay. 1986; D. Crimp. ed..

AIDS: Cultural Analysis. Cultural Activism. Cambridge. MIT Press. 1989; S. Watney.

Policing Desire: Pornography. AIDS, and the Media, Minneapolis. University of Minnesota Press. 1987.

45. C. Patton,

Sexand Germs.... op. cit.; D.

Altman.AIDS in the Mind op.

cit.; S. Watney.

Policing Desire op. cit.; J. Z. Grover. "AIDS: Keywords".

in D. Crimp. 00..

AIDS: Cultural Analysis...,op. cit.. p. 17; P. A. Treichler. "AIDS. Homophobia and Biomedical Discourse: An Epidemic of Signification".

in D. Crimp. 00..

AIDS: Cultural Analysis op. cit.. p. 31; S. Gilman. "AIDS and 'Syphilis: The Iconography of Disease".

in D. Crimp. 00..

AIDS: Cultural Analysis op. cit., p. 87; S. Watney, "The Spectac1e of AIDS".

in D. Crimp. 00..

AIDS: Cultural Analysis op. cit.. p.

71; P. A. Treichler. "AIDS. Gender. and BiomOOical Discourse: Current Contexts for Meaning",

in E. Fee e D. M. Fox. eds.,

AIDS: The Burden of History. Berkeley. University of California Press. 1988, p. 190; A. Juhasz. "The Contained Threat: Women in Mainstream AIDS Documentary".

Journal ofSex Research. vol. 27. pp. 25-46. 1990; J. Wi1\iamson. "Every Virus TeUs a Story: The Meanings of HIV and AIDS".

in E. Carrier e S. Watney. OOs..

Taking Liberties: AIDS and Cultural Politics. Londres. Serpents Tail. 1989. p. 69.

Datas de Publicação

Publicação nesta coleção
23 Jun 2010
Data do Fascículo
1995

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

[1] ¹
A. Goldenweiser, "Sex and Primitive Society", in V. I. Calverton e S. D. Schmlhausen, eds., Sex in Civilization, Nova Iorque, Macaulay Company, 1929, p. 53.

[2] ²
L. Fisher, "Relationships and Sexuality in Contexts and Culture", in B. B. Wolman e J. Money, OOs., Handbook of Sexuality, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1980, p. 164; e D. L. Davis e R. G. Whitten, "The Cross-Cultural Study ofHuman Sexuality",Ann. Rev. Anthropol. vol. 16, pp. 69-98, 1987.

[3] 4. C. S. Vance, "Gender Sistems, Ideology and Sex Research", in A. Snitow et alii, eds., Powers of De.fire, Nova lorque, Monthly Review Press, .1983, p. 271; e J. Irvine, Disorders of Desire, Filadélfia, Temple University Press, 1990.

[4] 5. Para textos básicos, ver 1. Katz, Gay American History, Nova lorque, CrowelI, 1976; J. Weeks, Coming Out: Homosexual Politics in Britain from the 19th Century to the Presenl, Londres, Quartet Books, 1977; R. A. Padgug, "Sexual Matters: On Conceptualizing Sexuality in History", Radical History Review, voI. 20, pp. 3-23, 1979; J. Weeks, Sexo Polilics and Society: The Regulalion of Sexuality since 1800, Nova lorque, Longman, 1981; A. Snitow el aUi, eds., Powers of Desire..., Op.cil.; J. Katz, Gay Lesbian Almanac, Nova lorque, Harper and Row, 1983; C. S. Vance, ed., Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality, Nova lorque, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984; J. Weeks, Sexuality, Londres, Tavistock, 1986; C. Peiss e C. Simmons, eds., Passion and Power: Sexuality in HÜlory, Filadélfia, Temple University Press, 1989; J. D'Emilio e E. B. Freedman, Intima te Malters: A Social HÜlory of Sexuality in America, Nova lorque, Harper and Row, 1988; D. Altman et aUi, eds., Homosexuality. Which Homosexuality?, Amsterdã, An Dekker/Schorer, 1989; M. B. Duberman et alii, eds., Hidden from Hislory: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Pa.ft, Nova lorque, New American Library, 1989.

[5] 6. 1. H. Gagnon e W. Simon, Sexual CondUCl: The Social Sources of Human Sexuality, Chicago, Aldine, 1973;

[6] K. Plummer, "Symbolic Interactionism and Sexual Conduct: An Emergent Perspective", in M. Brake, ed., Human Sexual Relalions, Nova lorque, Pantheon, 1982.

[7] ⁷
L. Duggan, "From Instincts to Politics: Writing the History of Sexuality in the U.S.", Journal of Sexual Research, voI. 27, p. 95,1990.

[8] ⁸
Para a Antropologia, ver R. Reiter, ed., Toward anAnthropology ofWomen, Nova Iorque, Monthly Review Press, 1975; M. Z. Rosaldo e L. Lamphere. eds., Women. Culture and Society, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1974; L. Lamphere, "Anthropology: A Review Essay, Signs, voI. 2, p. 612,1977; R. Rapp, "Anthropology: A Review Essay", Signs, voI. 4, p.497, 1979;J. M. Atkinson, "Anthropology: A Review Essay", Signs, voI. 8, p. 236, 1982; H. L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1988.

[9] ⁹
R. Bleier, Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and its Theories on Women, Nova Iorque, Pergamon Press. 1984; A. Fausto-Sterling, Myths ofGender: Biological Theories about Women and Men, Nova Iorque, Basic Books, 1985; J. Sayers. Biological Politics: Feminist and Anti-Feminist Perspectives, Nova Iorque, Tavistock Publication, 1982; M. Lowe e R. Hubbard, Women 's Nature: Rationalizations of lnequality, Nova Iorque, Pergamon Press, 1983; R. Hubbard, et alli, eds., Biological Woman: The Convenient Myth, Cambridge, Schenkman, 1982; E. Tobach e B. Rosoff, eds., Genes and Gender, Nova Iorque, Gordian Press, vols. 1-4, 1978.

[10] 10. S. Harding, The Science Que.ftion in Femini.fm, Ithaca, ComeU University Press, 1986; L. Schiebinger, The Mind Ha.f No Sex: Women in the Origin of Modem Science, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1989; B. Ehrenreich e D. English, For her Own Good: 150 Years of Experts' Advice to Women, Nova Iorque, Doubleday, 1979; G. 1. Barker-Benfield, The Horrors of the Half-Known Life, Nova Iorque, Harper and Row, 1976; D. Haraway, Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World ofModern Science, Nova Iorque, Routledge, 1989; L. J. Jordanova, Sexual Visions: lmages ofGender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Madison. University ofWisconsin Press, 1989; E. F. Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1984; S. Harding e M. Hintikka, eds., DiscoveringReality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics. Methodology and Philosophy of Science, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1983.

[11] ¹¹
G. Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex", in R. Reiter, ed.

[12] 16. M. Foucault, The Hi.ftOry ofSexuality, Nova Iorque, Pantheon, 1978.

[13] 21. N. Sahli, "Smashing: Women's Relationships before the Fali", Chrysalis, vol. 8, 1979; L. Rupp. "'Imagine My Surprise': Women's Relationships in Mid-Twentieth Century America", Fronliers. n° 5,1980; L. Faderman, Surpassing lhe Love ofMen, Nova lorque. WiIlian Morrow, 1981; G. Rubin, "Introdução", in R. Vivien,A Woman Appeared to Me. Weatherby Lake. Missouri, Naiad Press, 1979.

[14] 22. G. Herdt. Guardians oflhe Flules, Nova lorque. McGraw HiIl, 1981; G. Herdl, "Semen Transaclion in Sambia Culture", in G. Herdl, ed.. Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, Berkeley, University of California Press. 1984; G. Herdl, The Sambia: Ritual and Gender in New Guinea, Nova lorque, Holt, Rinehardt, Winslon. 1987.

[15] 23. M. B. Duberman et alii, eds.. Hiddenfrom History..., op. cit.; K. Plummer, ed., The Making ofthe Modern Homosexual, Londres, Hutchinson. 1981; J. D'Emilio, Sexual Polilics. Sexual Communities, Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1983; A. Bray. Homosexuality in Renais.wnce England. Londres. Gay Men's Press, 1982; E. Newton, "The Mythic Mannish Lesbian. Radclyffe Hall and the NewWoman".Signs. vol. 9. pp. 567-75.1984; M. Davis eE. Kennedy, "Oral History and the Study of Sexualily in lhe Lesbian Community: Buffalo, New Y ork, 1940-1960", FeminÜt Sludies, vol. 12. pp. 7-26, 1986; M. Vicinus, "'They Wonder to which Sex I Belong': The Historical Roots oflhe Modern Lesbian Idenlity". in D. Altman et alli, eds.. Homosexuality. Which Homosexuality?..., op. cit., p.171; K. Gerard e G. Hekma, eds., "The Pursuit of Sodomy: Male Homosexuality in Renaissance and Enlighlenment Europe". Journal of Homosexuality. n° 16 (número especial), 1988.

[16] 24. C. Péiss, "'Charity Girls' and City Pleasures: Historical Notes on Working Class Sexuality", in A. Snitow et alli, eds., Power.ç of Desire..., op. cit., p. 131; C. Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and LeÜure in Turn-of-the-Century New York, Filadélfia, Temple University Press, 1986; C. Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860, Nova 10rque, 1986; E. K. Trimberger, "Feminism, Men and Modero Love: Greenwich VilIage, 1900-1925", in A. Snitow et alli, eds., Powers of Desire..., op. cit., p. 131; 1. Katz, "The Invention of Heterosexuality", Socialist Review, vol. 20, pp. 7-34,1990.

[17] 25. J. Weeks, Sex, Politics..., op. cit.,; C. Peiss e C. Simmons, eds., Passion and Power... op. cit.; J. R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Cla.çs, and the State, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980; E. J. Bristow, Vice and Vigilance: Purity Movements in Britain since 1700, Nova Jersey, Rowman and Littlefield, 1977; D. Pivar, Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868-1900, Connecticut, Greenwood Press, 1972; A. M. Brandt, No Magic Bul/et: A Social History ofVeneral Disease in the United States since 1880, Nova lorque, Oxford University Press, 1985; W. Kendrick, The Secret Museum, Nova lorque, Viking, 1987; L. Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: A Social History of Birth Contrai in America, Nova lorque, Penguin, 1974.

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A antropologia redescobre a sexualidade: um comentário teórico

Anthropology rediscovers sexuality: a theoretical comment

L'anthropologie redecouvre la sexualité: un document théorique

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