Assessment of alternative broiler litter: physical properties, microbiological profile, and welfare implicationsABSTRACT
This study evaluated the potential of polyester textile waste and newsprint as sustainable alternative litter materials for broiler production. In the study, physical (water holding capacity, moisture content, dry matter), microbiological (TMAB, Enterobacteriaceae, coliform, E. coli) and welfare (footpad lesions) parameters of wood shavings, fabric, and newsprint litter were examined. The findings revealed that variations in litter type had no significant effect on body weight gain; however, they led to marked differences in water holding capacity and moisture content. Wood shavings demonstrated the greatest water retention ability, while cloth litter exhibited the lowest. The latter also contained the highest dry matter content and the lowest microbial load, likely due to its lower moisture content. Although newsprint had moderate moisture content, it exhibited the highest microbial load. Regarding footpad health, birds reared on cloth pads showed the least severe lesions, while those on wood shavings displayed the most pronounced lesions. In conclusion, fabric litter appears to be a promising alternative in terms of hygiene, animal welfare, and environmental sustainability, although additional studies are required to fully evaluate its long-term use and ecological implications.
Keywords:
broiler chicken; litter; footpad dermatitis; microbiology; welfare
RESUMO
Este estudo avaliou o potencial de resíduos têxteis de poliéster e de jornal como materiais de cama alternativos e sustentáveis para a produção de frangos de corte. Foram analisados parâmetros físicos (capacidade de retenção de água, teor de umidade, matéria seca), microbiológicos (TMAB, Enterobacteriaceae, coliformes, E. coli) e de bem-estar (lesões nas almofadas plantares) de camas de maravalha, tecido e jornal. Os resultados revelaram que as variações no tipo de cama não tiveram efeito significativo sobre o ganho de peso corporal; entretanto, provocaram diferenças marcantes na capacidade de retenção de água e no teor de umidade. A maravalha apresentou a maior capacidade de retenção de água, enquanto a cama de tecido demonstrou a menor. Esta última também apresentou o maior teor de matéria seca e a menor carga microbiana, provavelmente devido ao seu menor teor de umidade. Embora o jornal tenha apresentado um teor de umidade moderado, exibiu a maior carga microbiana. Em relação à saúde das almofadas plantares, as aves criadas sobre camas de tecido apresentaram as lesões menos severas, enquanto aquelas mantidas sobre maravalha mostraram as mais pronunciadas. Conclui-se que a cama de tecido se mostra uma alternativa promissora em termos de higiene, bem-estar animal e sustentabilidade ambiental, embora estudos adicionais sejam necessários para avaliar completamente seu uso em longo prazo e suas implicações ecológicas.
Palavras-chave:
frango de corte; material de cama; dermatite de pata; microbiologia; bem-estar
INTRODUCTION
Broiler farming is a rapidly growing sector of animal production worldwide, characterized by its high productivity. In modern broiler farming, animal welfare, health, and environmental sustainability are as important as productivity. Bedding material is a key component that directly influences both the animals’ quality of life and production performance, as they remain in constant contact with it throughout their time in the housing environment. Typically, litter is composed of organic or inorganic materials originating from agricultural or industrial by-products. Within poultry houses, it interacts with spilled feed, water, feces, feathers, and other debris, resulting in a heterogeneous and dynamic structure (Milanov et al., 2019). Consequently, poultry litter is known to support a diverse and complex microbiological community, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses (Plumblee Lawrence et al., 2022). Litter serves a pivotal role in enhancing animal welfare, optimizing production performance, and maintaining environmental management and biosecurity. Selecting suitable litter material helps to regulate in-house humidity, absorb excreta, provide thermal insulation, and mitigate welfare-related issues such as footpad dermatitis, breast burns, and feather contamination (Shepherd and Fairchild, 2010; Dunlop et al., 2016a). Wood shavings and rice hulls have traditionally been the predominant litter materials used in poultry production, largely due to their ability to serve as fertilizer or feed for other livestock once mixed with manure. Nonetheless, the increasing cost and limited availability of wood shavings in some areas, along with growing sustainability concerns, have intensified efforts to identify viable alternative litter materials (Diarra et al., 2021). Many solid wastes generated by industrial activities can be repurposed as raw materials in various sectors under suitable conditions. For instance, by-products from the food, beverage, slaughterhouse, and alcohol industries can be utilized in the production of animal feed or fertilizers (Liu et al., 2023). Waste from the textile industry typically consists of non-hazardous cloth and fiber remnants produced throughout weaving, processing, dyeing, and transport stages (Biyada and Urbonavicius, 2025). Therefore, utilizing these materials as litter in poultry houses could aid in environmental waste management while providing a cost-effective alternative. However, since fabric scraps cannot be repurposed as fertilizer or feed, certain factors limit their practical applicability as litter. Similarly, newsprint, another low-cost and readily available material, has potential as an alternative litter material. However, there is limited information in the literature concerning its water-holding capacity, moisture content, effects on animal health, and associated microbiological risks (Burke et al., 1993; Grimes and Godwin, 2006). The present study explored the potential of waste polyester fabrics and low-cost newsprint as alternative litter materials in broiler farming. The physical properties of these materials, including moisture retention capacity, dry matter content, water activity, and humidity, were assessed, along with their effects on footpad lesions throughout the rearing period. At the end of the trial, the microbiological characteristics of the litter were analyzed to evaluate their suitability in terms of animal health, welfare, and environmental impact. The main objective of the study is to determine whether polyester fabric scraps and newsprints can be an economical, environmentally friendly and welfare-oriented option for broiler chicken farming as an alternative to existing litter materials.
ETHICAL ASPECTS
The research was submitted to the Non-Interventional Research Ethics Committee of Fırat University and approved under the number 2022/7-8.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample size calculations were conducted using the G*Power 3.1 software (Faul et al., 2007). Growth performance analyses were based on a one-way ANOVA (omnibus F test), with a significance level of α=0.05 and a targeted power of 0.80. The total sample size was determined assuming a medium effect size (Cohen's f=0.25). Categorical analyses of footpad lesions were performed using the χ² (contingency table) test, with the required sample size calculated based on Cohen's w=0.30 (medium effect size). A total of 117 male Ross 308 commercial hybrid chicks were used in the study. The chicks were equally allocated into three 1m² pens, each with three replicates, resulting in 13 chicks per square meter. Litter materials-10cm thick (approximately 3kg) wood shavings, fabric scraps (50% cotton, 50% polyester), and newsprint-were placed at the bottom of each pen.
Chicks were provided with a standard broiler diet ad libitum for 42 days (NRC, 1994) and reared under a 4:2 intermittent lighting program. Body weight and weight gain were recorded weekly, and footpad lesions were assessed using a visual scoring system at the end of the trial (Leishman et al., 2021). The scoring system was defined as follows: 0, no footpad lesions with a healthy dermal surface; 1, mild footpad lesions characterized by oval or round ulcers covered with crust (<7.5 mm); 2, severe lesions with dark brown crust (>7.5mm) adhering to the central plantar footpad. A total of 27 chicks were evaluated for footpad lesions, comprising 3 chicks from each replicate and 9 chicks from each experimental group.
For this purpose, samples were oven-dried at 71°C for 72 hours and then weighed. From each sample, five 20-g portions were placed into nylon mesh bags and soaked in water for 24 and 48 hours. At the end of each soaking period, the bags were carefully removed, gently squeezed to remove excess water, allowed to air-dry for 30 minutes, and then weighed again (Bilgili et al., 2009). Water activity was measured both before and after use using a water activity analyzer (Testo-650, Germany) (Lang and Sternberg, 1998). For determination of dry matter and moisture content, litter samples were collected from five distinct locations within each pen, including one sample from the center, and combined in plastic bags to form a composite sample. Two grams of each composite sample were dried in an oven at 150°C for 24 hours. After drying, the samples were promptly transferred to a desiccator to equilibrate the temperature and then weighed.
For microbiological analyses, a 5-g litter sample was collected from each compartment at the end of the trial and placed in a sterile stomacher bag. Forty-five milliliters of sterile 0.1% peptone water (1/10w/v) were added, and the sample was homogenized using a food processor (BagMixer 400, France). Serial dilutions were then prepared using the same diluent, and 1 ml of each dilution was inoculated in duplicate. Following incubation, plates containing 30-300 colonies were evaluated (Harrigan, 1998). Total mesophilic aerobic bacteria counts were determined using Plate Count Agar incubated at 35±1°C for 24-48 hours (USDA, 2011), while Enterobacteriaceae species were analyzed according to ISO 6579 (ISO, 2017). For pre-enrichment, 25-g samples were incubated in 225 ml of buffered peptone water at 37°C for 18 hours. Subsequently, 0.1 ml of each pre-enriched sample was transferred to tubes containing 10 ml of Rappaport-Vassiliadis broth (41.5±1°C for 24 hours) and 10 ml of Muller-Kauffmann tetrathionate-novobiocin broth (37°C for 24 hours) and incubated. Cultures from the broths were streaked onto Xylose-Lysine-Deoxycholate (XLD; Neogen-NCM0021A, UK) and Xylose-Lysine-Tergitol (XLT4; Neogen-NCM0100A, UK) agar plates using a sterile loop and incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours.
All data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 20. Weekly body weight, weight gain, dry matter, moisture content, and microbiological results of chickens from each litter group were evaluated using one-way ANOVA. Tukey’s post hoc test was applied for multiple comparisons between groups. Footpad lesion data were analyzed using the Chi-Square test for independence. Statistical significance was set at P ≤ 0.05 (Petrie and Watson, 2013).
RESULTS
The effects of different litter materials on broiler live weight and average daily gain of broiler chickens reared on different litter materials are presented in Table 1. Statistically significant differences were observed among the groups on day 7 of the experiment (P<0.05). During this period, the highest live weight was recorded in the newsprint litter group (97.78g), the lowest in the fabric litter group (91.11g), and the wood shavings group showed intermediate values (94.78g). In the later stages of the experiment (days 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42), no statistically significant differences were observed among the groups in terms of live weight (P>0.05). Live weights followed a similar pattern across all groups during these periods, and by day 42, the average live weights ranged from 2081.33 to 2113.22g. No difference was detected in terms of live weight gains during the rearing period (P>0.05).
The water-holding capacities of the different litter materials are presented in Table 2. The highest water retention was observed in the wood shavings group at both measurement times (68.10% and 70.12%), followed by the newsprint litter (63.00% and 63.40%), while the fabric litter exhibited the lowest values (51.03% and 51.35%). A slight increase in water retention capacity was noted in all groups as the soaking period extended from 24 to 48 hours.
Table 3 presents the dry matter and moisture content of the litter materials. The highest dry matter content was observed in the fabric litter (99.67%), followed by newsprint (97.13%) and wood shavings (94.72%). Conversely, the highest moisture content was found in the wood shavings group (5.28%), while the lowest was recorded in the fabric litter group (0.33%), with newsprint litter showing a moderate moisture content of 2.87%. Differences among the litter materials in terms of both dry matter and moisture content were statistically significant (P<0.001).
The effects of different litter materials on microbial load are presented in Table 4. The highest total mesophilic aerobic bacteria (TMAB) count was observed in newsprint litter (10.40 log10 cfu/g), whereas the lowest was recorded in fabric litter (9.50 log10 cfu/g). Similarly, Enterobacteriaceae, coliform, and E. coli counts were highest in newsprint litter (8.87, 9.00, and 7.85 log10 cfu/g, respectively) and lower in fabric litter (7.55, 7.04, and 6.78 log10 cfu/g). Wood shavings exhibited intermediate values for these microbial parameters. The differences in microbial load among the litter groups were statistically significant (P<0.05).
Table 5 presents the distribution of footpad lesion scores in the chickens examined at the end of the study. In the wood shavings group, score 2 lesions were more prevalent (n=6), while three individuals exhibited score 1 lesions. In the fabric litter group, most chickens showed score 1 lesions (n=7), with only two individuals displaying score 2. In the newsprint litter group, lesion scores were evenly distributed, with three chickens in each score category (0, 1, and 2). No chickens with a score of 0 were observed in the wood shavings or fabric litter groups. The highest number of chickens with score 1 lesions was observed in the fabric litter group, whereas the highest number of score 2 lesions occurred in the wood shavings group. In the newsprint litter group, an equal number of chickens were recorded for each score category. The differences in footpad lesion severity among the litter groups were statistically significant (P<0.05).
DISCUSSION
This study examined the effects of different litter materials (wood shavings, fabric, and newsprint) on broiler live weight development, litter characteristics, and microbial load. The results indicated that litter type influenced certain performance and quality parameters. Statistically significant differences in live weight were observed among the litter groups on day 7. This difference is likely associated with the chicks’ adaptation to new environmental conditions at the beginning of the rearing period. Similar adaptive responses have also been reported in other avian species. For example, dietary ellagic acid supplementation in quails exposed to heat stress has been shown to enhance growth performance, support antioxidant defense mechanisms, and improve cecal microbial balance (Iflazoglu Mutlu et al., 2021). These findings are consistent with our results and underscore the importance of nutritional modifications in mitigating environmental stress-induced physiological alterations. The physical properties of the litter materials, particularly thermal insulation, moisture retention capacity, and surface structure, may influence chick comfort and contribute to variations in early growth performance. However, no significant differences were observed among the groups during the later stages of the experiment (day 14 and beyond). These findings suggest that the influence of litter material on live weight development diminishes as chicks acclimate to their environmental conditions during the growth period. A study by Diarra et al. (2021) highlights that different litter materials can affect broiler behavior, growth performance, and welfare. These findings underscore the role of litter type in influencing broiler adaptation to environmental conditions, which may result in variations in early-stage performance. Another study reported that the average body weight gain of broiler chickens was not affected by the type of litter material (Durmus et al., 2023). In this study, the water-holding capacities of the litter materials were evaluated at 24 and 48 hours. The observed differences in water holding are likely attributable to the structural properties of the materials; the fibrous nature of wood shavings enables greater liquid absorption, whereas the denser, more compact structure of fabric litter may restrict its water-holding capacity (Munir et al., 2019). A slight increase in water-holding capacity was observed in all groups as the measurement period extended from 24 to 48 hours, suggesting that the ability of litter materials to absorb environmental moisture may improve over time. The literature indicates that the water-holding capacity of litter materials is a critical factor influencing both animal comfort and microbial load (Li et al., 2021; Damasceno et al., 2022). In particular, litter with a high water-holding capacity can help prevent animals from remaining wet by facilitating rapid moisture dispersion, thereby contributing to the control of microbial proliferation within the litter. Significant differences in dry matter and moisture content were observed among the litter materials used in the study. Fabric litter exhibited the highest dry matter content, followed by newsprint and wood shavings. Conversely, moisture content was highest in wood shavings and lowest in fabric litter. These differences are likely attributable to the physical structure and water-holding properties of the materials. The fibrous, loosely structured wood shavings absorbed environmental moisture, resulting in higher moisture content. In contrast, the tightly woven, less absorbent fabric remained drier due to its limited water retention capacity. The newsprint litter exhibited an intermediate level of water absorption, likely due to its cellulose-based structure. Mesophiles are microorganisms that thrive at moderate temperatures ranging from 20 to 45°C, with an optimal growth temperature between 30 and 39°C. These organisms, encompassing members of the Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya domains, can be isolated from both soil and aquatic environments. Enterobacteriaceae is a large family of bacteria that includes pathogenic species such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Broiler litter is predominantly composed of Gram-positive bacteria. The most detected bacterial families in poultry litter include Lactobacillaceae, Bacillaceae, Staphylococcaceae, Clostridiaceae, Enterococcaceae, Corynebacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae, Microciniaceae, and Proteobacteria (Chen and Jiang, 2014). In a study using litter composed of peat, cellulose pellets, sawdust, and a pH balancer, the total microbial count in broiler litter was reported to be 7-9 log10 cfu/g after 72 hours of incubation on Plate Count Agar at 30°C under aerobic conditions (Milanov et al., 2019). This value is higher than the results observed in our study, which may be attributed to the inability to culture certain environmental microorganisms under laboratory conditions, the exclusion of strict anaerobes by this method, and the characteristics of the substrate material used. The study revealed a clear parallel between the dry matter and moisture content of different litter materials and their microbial loads. Wood shavings, which exhibited the highest moisture content, showed moderate levels of TMAB, Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, and E. coli. In contrast, the lowest values for all microbial parameters were observed in the fabric litter, which had the lowest moisture content. The newsprint litter, however, exhibited moderate moisture content and, correspondingly, the highest microbial load. These findings indicate a direct relationship between the moisture content of the litter material and its microbial load. Consistent with this, the literature reports that high-moisture litter provides a favorable environment for the proliferation of Enterobacteriaceae and coliform bacteria (Dunlop et al., 2016b; Diarra et al., 2021). These findings indicate a direct relationship between the moisture content of the litter material and its microbial load. Consistent with this, the literature reports that high-moisture litter provides a favorable environment for the proliferation of Enterobacteriaceae and coliform bacteria. Notably, cellulose-based materials (e.g., newsprint), despite their relatively low moisture retention capacity, can also accelerate bacterial growth by limiting ventilation due to their dense structure (Seddiqi et al., 2021). On the other hand, litters with low moisture content can limit microbial growth; however, an excessively dry structure may generate dust and contribute to respiratory health problems (Bilgili et al., 2009; Li et al., 2021). In our study, the fabric substrate exhibited the lowest microbial load, likely due to its low moisture content, clearly illustrating the relationship between moisture and microbial proliferation. In contrast, the newsprint substrate showed the highest microbial load despite having moderate moisture content, which is thought to result from its structural properties limiting adequate air circulation. Therefore, when selecting litter material, it is important to consider not only moisture content but also the material’s physical structure, aeration capacity, and water retention properties. Significant differences were observed between the litter materials regarding footpad lesions. Mild lesions were more prevalent in the fabric litter group, while severe lesions were limited. This outcome may be attributed to the drier nature of the fabric, which reduces moisture and ammonia accumulation. Literature indicates that litter moisture content is a key determinant of footpad lesion development (Shepherd and Fairchild, 2010; Cengiz et al., 2011). More severe lesions were observed in the wood shavings litter, likely due to its high water-holding capacity, which can lead to increased moisture and subsequent footpad irritation. In contrast, the even distribution of scores in the newsprint group may be explained by its structural properties. Although newsprint partially retains moisture, its lack of looseness may have caused greater direct contact between the chicks’ footpads and the hard surface. The results of our study suggest that different litter materials can influence the development of footpad lesions to varying degrees. These findings align with previous research. For instance, Bilgili et al. (2009) and Shepherd and Fairchild (2010) highlighted the critical role of litter moisture and physical structure in the occurrence of footpad lesions.
CONCLUSIONS
Selecting the optimal litter material requires a holistic evaluation of bird performance, hygiene, microbial load, and foot health. Our study highlights the advantages of fabric litter in terms of comfort, health, and microbiological environment for chicks during the early rearing stages, making it a promising option for consideration. However, further research is needed to assess the environmental impact of fabric litter.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK/2209-A) under the Grant Number (1919B012104880). The authors thank to TUBITAK for their support.
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The research data are available upon reasonable request.
