Abstract
The introduction of invasive alien species (IAS) is among the leading causes of biodiversity loss in the world. The arrival of these species causes several imbalances in the natural environment. The establishment of these species depends on their transport, entry, adaptive success, and interactions in the environment. This work aims to present 12 species of exotic invasive fish that occur in natural environments in Brazil in the form of a booklet and to discuss some aspects inherent to legislation changes related to the cultivation of these species. The target audience of this study is mainly fish farmers, fishermen, riverside dwellers, assistance technicians, schools, environmental departments, and rural communities. The list had as a criterion the selection of species that are raised in fish farming stations and that already have records of occurrence in natural ecosystems in the country. These are exotic species introduced (from other countries) and with high invasive potential in Brazilian continental waters. To compose the list of these species, national and international studies that discuss the subject were sought, the following species being selected: Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Hypophthalmichthys nobilis, Cyprinus carpio, Oreochromis niloticus, Coptodon Rendalli, Oreochromis mossambicus, Oreochromis macrochir, Clarias gariepinus, Ictalurus punctatus, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Micropterus salmoides. In addition to presenting the impacts of invasive alien species on native ichthyofauna, this material will help disseminate technical information and may also be an aid to guide public policy decision making and awareness.
Keywords:
aquaculture; biodiversity; distribution; establishment; invasion; legislation
Resumo
A introdução de espécies exóticas invasoras (EEI) está entre as principais causas de perda da biodiversidade no mundo. A chegada dessas espécies provoca vários desequilíbrios no meio natural. O estabelecimento destas espécies depende do transporte, entrada, sucesso adaptativo e interações no ambiente. Este trabalho tem como propósito apresentar 12 espécies de peixes exóticos invasores que ocorrem em ambientes naturais no Brasil na forma de cartilha e discorrer sobre alguns aspectos inerentes as mudanças na legislação em relação ao cultivo destas espécies. O público-alvo desta cartilha são principalmente piscicultores, pescadores, ribeirinhos, técnicos assistencialistas, escolas, secretarias de meio ambiente e a comunidade rural. A lista de teve como critério a seleção de espécies que são criadas em estações de piscicultura e que já possuem registros de ocorrência em ecossistemas naturais do país. Sendo estas, espécies exóticas introduzidas (vindas de outros países) e com alto potencial invasor em águas continentais brasileiras. Para compor a relação destas, foram buscados trabalhos nacionais e internacionais que discorre sobre o tema, sendo selecionadas as seguintes espécies: Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Hypophthalmichthys nobilis, Cyprinus carpio, Oreochromis niloticus, Coptodon rendalli, Oreochromis mossambicus, Oreochromis macrochir, Clarias gariepinus, Ictalurus punctatus, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Micropterus salmoides. Além disso, são apresentados os impactos das espécies exóticas invasoras sobre a ictiofauna nativa, o que ajudará na divulgação de informações técnicas e poderá ser também um auxiliar para nortear tomadas de decisões de políticas públicas e conscientização.
Palavras-chave:
aquicultura; biodiversidade; distribuição; estabelecimento; invasão; legislação
1. Introduction
Introducing invasive alien species (IAS) in environments causes several impacts and ecological disequilibrium in both intra- and interspecific interactions of native species since both biodiversity and ecosystems are affected(11 Agostinho AA, Júlio Júnior HF. Ameaça ecológica: peixes de outras águas. In: Ciência Hoje, v. 21, n. 124, 1996. p. 36-44.,22 Rahel FJ. Homogenization of freshwater faunas. In: Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, v. 33, p. 291-315, 2002. Available from: <https://www.jstor.org/stable/3069264>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). The escaping and development of invasive species harm local populations, resulting in competition and fertile hybridization that affect the natural genetic variability and result in the extinction of these populations(33 Bellard C, Cassey P, Blackburn TM Alien species as a driver of recent extinctions. In: Biology Letters, v. 12, fev. 2016. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0623>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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,44 Holcik J. Fish introductions in Europe with particular reference to its Central and Eastern part. In: Can. J. Fish and Aquatic Science, v. 48, n. 1, p. 13-23, 1991. Available from: <https://www.reabic.net/publ/Holcik_1991.pdf>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). Besides, it increases the pathogen incidence, alters biological interactions in trophic webs, and decreases the protection of native populations, decreasing their shelters and safe environments for oviposition, etc.(55 Agostinho AA, Gomes LC, Pelicice FM. Ecologia e manejo de recursos pesqueiros em reservatórios do Brasil. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá, 2007. 501p.,66 Casal CMV. Global documentation of fish introductions: the growing crisis and recomendations for action. In: Biological Invasions, n. 8, p. 3-11, 2006. Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2006. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-005-0231-3>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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,77 Kurchevski G, Ashikaga FY, Casimiro ACR, Almeida FF, Orsi ML. Espécies introduzidas como vetores de patógenos e parasitas. In: Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Limnologia, v. 38, n. 1, 2010. Available from: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235411966_Especies_introduzidas_como_vetores_de_patogenos_e_parasitas>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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,88 Latini A, Petrere MJr. Reduction of a native fish fauna by alien species: an example from Brazilian freshwater tropical lakes. In: Fish Management Ecology, v. 11, n. 2, p. 71-79, 2004.,22 Rahel FJ. Homogenization of freshwater faunas. In: Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, v. 33, p. 291-315, 2002. Available from: <https://www.jstor.org/stable/3069264>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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).
Generally speaking, the occurrence and establishment of IAS of fish in a new environment are subject to four main factors: I – the displacement from their habitats (transport); II – entry into the new environment; III – adaptive success (as a viable reproducing population), affected by biotic, abiotic, and geographic environmental pressures; and IV – interactions within the community (after integrating into the introduced environment, the IAS tends to alter the behavior patterns and the ecological niche of the native species)(99 Brasil. Decreto nº 10.576, de 14 de dezembro de 2020. Dispõe sobre a cessão de uso de espaços físicos em corpos d’água de domínio da União para a prática da aquicultura. Diário Oficial da União: Brasília, DF, p. 7, 15 dez. 2020.). Still, impacts on native communities may occur before all stages are complete, even after entering an IAS in a new environment.
The invasion of IAS of fish in Brazil occurs in streams and streamlets with different monitoring and oversight levels, including in protected units (PUs), for several reasons (e.g., releases and escape from breeders). Therefore, species with high reproduction and dispersion capacity are more likely to colonize new environments(1010 Sampaio AB, Schmidt IB. Espécies exóticas invasoras em unidades de conservação federais do Brasil. In: Biodiversidade Brasileira, n. 2, p. 32-49, 2013.). Pisciculture bears the greatest responsibility for the introduction of IAS within natural environments due to escape events to residual waters (effluent streams and streamlets), rupture or overflow of the cultivation tanks, or even the escape of fertile eggs and fingerlings through the mesh of net tanks in hydroelectric reservoirs(1111 Casimiro ACR, Garcia DAZ, Vidotto-Magnoni AP, Britton JR, Agostinho ÂA, Almeida, FS, Orsi ML. Escapes of non-native fish from fooded aquaculture facilities: the case of Paranapanema River, southern Brazil. Zoologia. v. 35. e14638. 2018. Available from <https://doi.org/10.3897/zoologia.35.e14638> Acesso 02 de maio de 2023.
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,1212 Agostinho AA, Vitorino Junior OB, Pelicice F. Nota Técnica: riscos ambientais do cultivo de tilápia em tanques redes. In: Boletim Sociedade Brasileira de Ictiologia, n. 124. Londrina: SBI, dez. 2017. Available from: <https://www.sbi.bio.br/images/sbi/boletim-docs/2017/december_124.pdf>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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,1313 Latini AO. et al. Brazil’s new fish farming Decree threatens freshwater conservation in South America. In: Biological Conservation, v. 263, nov. 2021. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109353>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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,1414 Orsi ML, Agostinho AA. Introdução de espécies de peixes por escapes acidentais de tanques de cultivo em rios da Bacia do Rio Paraná, Brasil. In: Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, v. 16, n. 2, p. 557-560, 1999.,1515 Welcomme RL. lnternational introductions of inland aquatic species. Rome: FAO Fish. Tec. Papers, 1988. n. 294. Available from: < https://www.fao.org/3/X5628E/X5628E00.htm>. Accessed in: 21 jan. 2021.
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,11 Agostinho AA, Júlio Júnior HF. Ameaça ecológica: peixes de outras águas. In: Ciência Hoje, v. 21, n. 124, 1996. p. 36-44.). Although there are dispersal barriers (natural or anthropic), these barriers do not prevent these species from reaching places protected by law, such as PUs (regulated by Law no. 9.985/2000) in Brazil(1616 Brasil. Lei nº 9.985, de 18 de julho de 2000. Regulamenta o art. 225, § 1º, incisos I, II, III, e VII da Constituição Federal, institui o Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservação da Natureza e dá outras providências. Diário Oficial da União: seção 1, Brasília, DF, p. 1, 19 jul. 2000.). The occurrence of these species in these areas is evidence of the trespassing of these barriers, resulting in severe environmental issues and the direct introduction into these areas protected by law. Currently, around 90 IAS of fish have been observed in continental waters in Brazil(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Identifying the potential introduction vectors of IAS of fish and as well as determining the biological features of the species and their behaviors in environments are effective strategies for managing IAS of fish. Besides, it is fundamental to comprehend the impact of these animals on biogeochemical cycles, tropic chains, interspecific relationships, and nutrient availability in new habitats(1818 Casimiro AC, Ashikaga FL, Kurchevski G, Almeida F, Orsi ML. Os impactos das introduções de espécies exóticas em sistemas aquáticos continentais. In: Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Limnologia, n. 38, v. 1, dez. 2010. Available from: < https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235411882 Os impactos das introduções de espécies exóticas em sistemas aquáticos continentais>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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).
Therefore, this study aimed to present a dozen IAS of fish found in Brazil, highlighting the basic biological features of each species with a didactic character aiming to reach the non-academic public, providing them with information about these species and their environmental and socioeconomic impacts(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). The choice of these species is because these IAS are already cultivated in Brazil. After all, they are IAS to South America and have been found in several Brazilian natural environments, representing a significant threat to local species and the entire biotic environment.
2. Some regulatory aspects regarding the introduction of the IAS of fish in Brazil
2.1 The culture of the IAS of fish in Brazil
In Brazil, the introduction of any animal species without a technical and licensed opinion by the competent environmental agency is prohibited and subjected to the prescribed penalty of detention and a fine, as provided in the Environmental Crimes Law (no. 9.605, of February 12th, 1998) in its 31st article(1919 Brasil. Lei nº 9.605, de 12 de fevereiro de 1998. Lei de Crimes Ambientais. Dispõe sobre as sanções penais e administrativas derivadas de condutas e atividades lesivas ao meio ambiente, e dá outras providências. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil, Poder Executivo: seção 1, Brasília, DF, p. 1, 13 fev. 1998.). The 61st law article provides for “disseminating diseases or plagues or species that may cause damage to agriculture, livestock, fauna, flora, or ecosystems,” resulting in imprisonment and fines. This environmental crimes law was regulated by Federal Decree 6.514/08(2020 Brasil. Decreto nº 6.514, de 22 de julho de 2008. Dispõem sobre as infrações e sanções administrativas ao meio ambiente, estabelece processo administrativo federal para apuração destas infrações, e dá outras providências. Diário Oficial da União, Poder Executivo: seção 1, Brasília, DF, p.1, 23 jul. 2008.). Law 5.179/67 (the Fauna Protection Law) regards the introduction of IAS in the country. Its fourth article defines that “no species may be introduced in the country without a favorable official technical opinion and license issued according to the law”(2121 Brasil. Lei nº 5.197, de 05 de julho de 1967. Dispõe sobre a proteção à fauna e dá outras providências. Diário Oficial da União, Poder Executivo: p. 177. 05/01/1967.).
Several zootechnical performance protocols and studies are available for IAS. Still, such information is not abundant for native species, with some exceptions, such as tambaqui, pirarucu, and some other species. Investing, encouraging, and making protocols for the culture of native species are ways to prevent the arrival of IAS that cause ecological imbalances in ecosystems. The demand for food and fish is growing worldwide, stimulating the aquaculture sector. The aquaculture sector worldwide in 2020 produced 54.4 million tons of freshwater fish(2222 FAO. 2022 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards Blue Transformation. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en.>. Accessed in: 02/05/2023.
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). In Brazil, it was estimated that 860.355 t of fish were produced in 2022, an increase of 2.3% in Brazilian aquaculture compared to a year before, in which 841.005 t were produced. tilapia species represented 63.93% of the total fish produced in Brazil in 2022, considering a grand production of 550,060 t, a 3% increase compared to the 534,005 t produced in 2021. The state of Paraná was the leading producing state of this species (187,800 t), followed by São Paulo (77,300 t), Minas Gerais (51,700 t), Santa Catarina (42,500 t), and Mato Grosso do Sul (32,200 t)(2323 Associação Brasileira Da Piscicultura. Anuário 2023 - Peixe BR da Piscicultura. São Paulo: Associação Brasileira de Psicultura, 2021 p 7-8. Available from: < https://www.peixebr.com.br/anuario/>. Accessed in: 07 maio. 2023.
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).
Over 70 tilapia species are known worldwide, among which 22 have commercial importance(2424 Modadugu VG, Acosta BO. A review of global tilapia farming practices. In: Aquacult, v. 9, n. 1, p. 7-12, Asia, 2004. Available from: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242507570_A_review_of_global_tilapia_farming_practices>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). Among them, the tilapia species covered in this booklet (e.g., the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), the redbreast tilapia (Coptodon rendalli), the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), and the longfin tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir)] are widely cultivated in Brazil. Besides tilapias, common and grass carps (Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon idella, mainly) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming is highlighted in the country. The Southern Brazilian region, comprising the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and Paraná, concentrates most of the carp production, with 2.9 t produced in 2021(2525 Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Sidra - Banco de tabelas estatísticas. 2019. Available from < https://sidra.ibge.gov.br/home/pms/brasil> Accessed in: 4 abr. 2021.
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). At the same time, trout production reached 1,993,660 Kg in the country, with Minas Gerais (in the Southeastern region) being the leading producing state(2626 Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Sidra - Banco de tabelas estatísticas. 2021. Available from https://cidades.ibge.gov,br/brasil/pesquisa/18/16459 Accessed in: 4 maio. 2023.
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).
However, most fish production is still carried out inappropriately because of a lack of technical orientation or environmental regulation(1414 Orsi ML, Agostinho AA. Introdução de espécies de peixes por escapes acidentais de tanques de cultivo em rios da Bacia do Rio Paraná, Brasil. In: Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, v. 16, n. 2, p. 557-560, 1999.). Improvements in legislation are also necessary(2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.) because the current laws may make aquaculture potentially harmful if the introduction of IAS of fish in natural environments is considered(55 Agostinho AA, Gomes LC, Pelicice FM. Ecologia e manejo de recursos pesqueiros em reservatórios do Brasil. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá, 2007. 501p.). Legislation changes throughout the years facilitated the breeding of exotic freshwater fish(2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.). This is because, in general, the legislation is created by laypeople unaware of the dangers the IAS of fish may represent if they reach natural environments.
2.2 Changes in regulatory laws on the introduction of IAS of fish
Among the laws regulating the introduction of IAS in environments, a landmark was Law no. 5989/09(2828 Brasil. PL 5.989, de 08 de setembro de 2009. Altera e acrescenta dispositivos à Lei nº 11.959, de 29 de junho de 2009, dispondo sobre a aquicultura de espécies autóctones, alóctones ou exóticas e sobre a obrigatoriedade de os proprietários ou concessionários de represas procederem à respectiva recomposição ambiental. Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília, DF, 29 de set de 2009.), which altered provisions of Law no. 11.959 of June 29th, 2009 (which provides for the National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries -PNDSAP). In Article 22, the law covers the responsibility of aquaculture farmers to keep the species safe at their breeding sites and prevent their arrival in Brazilian watersheds(2929 Brasil. Lei nº 11.959 de 29 de junho de 2009. Dispõe sobre a Política Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentável da Aquicultura e da Pesca. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil, Poder Executivo, Brasília, DF, 30 jun. 2009.). The Bill suffered modifications in the Environment and Sustainable Development Commission, in which the names of IAS that could be cultivated in net cages were excluded from the original proposal. In addition, according to this law, the Brazilian Ministry of Fishing would be in charge of listing the species, and each Brazilian state would be responsible for defining the permit relationship through a normative act of the executive branch.
According to Lima Junior et al.(2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.), the changes in PNDSAP through Law no. 5989/09 represent a setback once the changes in the law would not treat the release of IAS of fish and would omit questions related to their previous establishment. Therefore, such easing of legislation is associated with creating IAS, decreasing the restrictions of aquaculture in net cages, and analogous structures utilizing reservoirs to allow such activity.
Another factor that harms native species populations regards the repopulation (storage) made by owners or concessionaries as an environmental reward, which defines the use of autochthonous species in watersheds. Even though they are local species, the release of exotic individuals in the environment, without any scientific criteria, may affect several populations of native species existing in natural environments(3030 Casimiro A., Vizintim Marques, A.C., Claro-Garcia, A. et al. Hatchery fish stocking: case study, current Brazilian state, and suggestions for improvement. Aquaculture International. v. 30, p. 2213–2230. 2022. Available from < https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-022-00898-4> Accessed in 08/05/2023.
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,55 Agostinho AA, Gomes LC, Pelicice FM. Ecologia e manejo de recursos pesqueiros em reservatórios do Brasil. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá, 2007. 501p.). Therefore, inherent aspects related to changes in environmental law that favor the creation of IAS in reservoirs must be considered. When releases occur (repopulation), such places often provide establishment conditions to species with invasive potentials, harming native species even more(2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.).
In 2020, the Brazilian Federal Government published Decree no. 10.576/2020, which provides for the assignment of the use of physical spaces in water bodies under the domain of the Union for the practice of aquaculture(3131 Brasil. Decreto nº 10.576, de 14 de dezembro de 2020. Dispõe sobre a cessão de uso de espaços físicos em corpos d’água de domínio da União para a prática da aquicultura. Diário Oficial da União: Brasília, DF, p. 7, 15 dez. 2020.). Such a decree significantly facilitated the cultivation of IAS of fish in net tanks in Brazilian reservoirs(3232 Charvet P, Occhi TVT, Faria L, Carvalho B, Pedroso CR, Carneiro L, Freitas M, Petrere-Junior M, Vitule JRS. Tilapia farming threatens Brazil’s Waters. In: Science, v. 371, p. 356, 22 jan. 2021. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg1346>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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). Another aggravating factor in this decree was the removal of prerogatives from the Brazilian Ministry of Environment in the process of issuing licenses for fish farming in reservoirs, leaving the Aquaculture and Fisheries Secretariat (SAP) in charge of regulating the cultivation of native species and IAS in these locations. The decree allows SAP to release a grant for using the water from reservoirs by the National Water and Basic Sanitation Agency (ANA). Before that, the interested party registered their plans requesting the use of these waters in the ANA. The inspection fragility may directly affect the introduction of IAS into freshwater environments, threatening significant Brazilian fish biodiversity. Considering the limits of the hydrographic basins, this decree may have effects in neighboring countries that converge basins with Brazil (e.g., Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, etc.), where IAS may be able to overcome existing barriers (e.g., physiographic barriers(3333 Fausch KD et al. Landscapes to riverscapes: bridging the gap between research and conservation of stream fishes. BioScience, v. 52, p. 483–498. 2002.) or dispersion barriers), and establish themselves beyond national borders, reaching ecoregions with high fish species richness and endemism(1313 Latini AO. et al. Brazil’s new fish farming Decree threatens freshwater conservation in South America. In: Biological Conservation, v. 263, nov. 2021. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109353>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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).
A legislative change that may be considered an incentive for the introduction of IAS was approved by Law 2510/2019(3434 Brasil, PL nº 2510, de 24 de abril de 2019. Altera a Lei nº 12.651, de 25 maio de 2012, para dispor sobre as áreas de proteção permanente no perímetro urbano e nas regiões metropolitanas. Alteração, Código Florestal (2012), definição, Área de preservação permanente (APP), Área urbana, plano diretor, lei municipal, utilização, solo urbano. Available from < https://www.camara.leg.br/proposicoesWeb/fichadetramitacao?idProposicao=2199215> Accessed in 08/05/2023.
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) (which refers to the preservation strip in the banks of water bodies in urban areas). This law changes Law no. 12.651 of May 25th, 2012, to provide for permanent protection areas in the urban perimeter and metropolitan regions, which was approved in a virtual plenary session on August 26th, 2021(3535 Brasil. Lei nº 12.651, de 25 de maio de 2012. Dispõe sobre a proteção da vegetação nativa; altera as Leis nºs 6.938, de 31 de agosto de 1981, 9.393, de 19 de dezembro de 1996, e 11.428, de 22 de dezembro de 2006; revoga as Leis nºs 4.771, de 15 de setembro de 1965, e 7.754, de 14 de abril de 1989, e a Medida Provisória nº 2.166-67, de 24 de agosto de 2001; e dá outras providências. Diário Oficial da União, Brasília, DF, 28/05/2012.). Another more concerning bill is 614/2018(3636 São Paulo. PL 614, de 28 de setembro de 2018. Proíbe a captura, o embarque, o transporte, a comercialização e o processamento dos peixes das espécies Cichla piquiti, Tucunaré Azul, e Cichla kelberi, Tucunaré Amarelo. ALESP. São Paulo, SP.2018.) (the protection of non-native species) in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. The law proposal seeks to allow the commercialization of Tucunarés, an invasive species in the state. The bill text has already been passed by parliamentarians in the Legislative Assembly of the State of São Paulo (ALESP).
Finally, another legislative change that could further affect the situation, and is currently in progress, is the environmental licensing relaxation by Law 3.729/04, approved by the Chamber of Deputies on May 13th, 2021(3737 Brasil. PL nº 3.729, de 08 de junho de 2004. Dispõe sobre o licenciamento ambiental; regulamenta o inciso IV do § 1º do art. 225 da Constituição Federal; altera as Leis nºs 9.605, de 12 de fevereiro de 1998, e 9.985, de 18 de julho de 2000; revoga dispositivo da Lei nº 7.661, de 16 de maio de 1988; e dá outras providências. Câmara dos Deputados. Brasília, DF. 2004. Available from < https://www.camara.leg.br/proposicoesWeb/fichadetramitacao?idProposicao=257161> Accessed in 06/05/2023.
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). According to this law, fish farming may be regulated through a single environmental license (the law modifies the licensing structure and changes the environmental studies and projects necessary for aquaculture, among other activities). The law matter is awaiting consideration by the Federal Senate under Law 2.159/2021(3838 Brasil. PL nº 2.159, de 18 de agosto de 2021. Dispõe sobre o licenciamento ambiental; regulamenta o inciso IV do § 1º do art. 225 da Constituição Federal; altera as Leis nºs 9.605, de 12 de fevereiro de 1998, e 9.985, de 18 de julho de 2000; revoga dispositivo da Lei nº 7.661, de 16 de maio de 1988; e dá outras providências. Câmara dos Deputados. Brasília, DF. 2021.Available from < https://www25.senado.leg.br/web/atividade/materias/-/materia/148785 Accessed in: 30 de abril de 2023.
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). Regarding this, it is necessary to wait to see whether the legislature will keep the proposal forwarded, which presents itself as a facilitator for regulating potentially impactful activities.
2.3 Possible impacts due to changes in legislation on aquaculture and the incentive for native species cultivation
The easing of legislation and the consequent increase in fish farming in net cages may increase the pressure of IAS on native species, leading to the transmission of genetic variation in local populations(33 Bellard C, Cassey P, Blackburn TM Alien species as a driver of recent extinctions. In: Biology Letters, v. 12, fev. 2016. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0623>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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,2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.). Such an easing may lead to the spread of pathogens, competition for resources, increased predation rate, reduced fitness, extirpation, and extinction, among others. Additionally, this measure may change the physical–chemical features of water (e.g., dissolved oxygen, turbidity, pH, and ammonia concentration, among others. If there is an accumulation of sediments, eutrophication of the water may occur, caused by a surplus feed, increased excreta, etc., inducing the growth of toxic algae(1212 Agostinho AA, Vitorino Junior OB, Pelicice F. Nota Técnica: riscos ambientais do cultivo de tilápia em tanques redes. In: Boletim Sociedade Brasileira de Ictiologia, n. 124. Londrina: SBI, dez. 2017. Available from: <https://www.sbi.bio.br/images/sbi/boletim-docs/2017/december_124.pdf>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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).
In this way, IASs dominate the places where they are introduced because they compete for food resources, prey on eggs and young forms of native fish, may be carriers of unknown pathogens for the immune system of the natural fauna, and are more efficient in reproduction, with parental care in invaded environments(3939 Vitule JRS. Introduções de peixes em ecossistemas continentais brasileiros: revisão, comentários, e sugestões de ações contra o inimigo quase invisível. In: Neotropical Biology and Conservation, v. 4, n. 2, p. 111-122, 2009.,55 Agostinho AA, Gomes LC, Pelicice FM. Ecologia e manejo de recursos pesqueiros em reservatórios do Brasil. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá, 2007. 501p.). Adding to that, the escape of IAS from net cages, often due to the incompatibility of the physical structure concerning the animals raised (which does not prevent the escape of small fish), for example, may lead to changes in the fishing resources of native species, impacting local economic activity(2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.).
Cultivating IAS in excavated tanks or nurseries also poses a risk to ecosystems when failures occur in the structure or management of the production system, allowing the animals to escape(1414 Orsi ML, Agostinho AA. Introdução de espécies de peixes por escapes acidentais de tanques de cultivo em rios da Bacia do Rio Paraná, Brasil. In: Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, v. 16, n. 2, p. 557-560, 1999.). However, rearing IASs in excavated tanks may provide better environmental safety. This will occur if these tanks are built far from the water course margins, with a mechanism that prevents leaks in the event of an overflow in the rainy season, and with protection at the exit of wastewater, among other measures compared to net cages(1111 Casimiro ACR, Garcia DAZ, Vidotto-Magnoni AP, Britton JR, Agostinho ÂA, Almeida, FS, Orsi ML. Escapes of non-native fish from fooded aquaculture facilities: the case of Paranapanema River, southern Brazil. Zoologia. v. 35. e14638. 2018. Available from <https://doi.org/10.3897/zoologia.35.e14638> Acesso 02 de maio de 2023.
https://doi.org/10.3897/zoologia.35.e146...
,1212 Agostinho AA, Vitorino Junior OB, Pelicice F. Nota Técnica: riscos ambientais do cultivo de tilápia em tanques redes. In: Boletim Sociedade Brasileira de Ictiologia, n. 124. Londrina: SBI, dez. 2017. Available from: <https://www.sbi.bio.br/images/sbi/boletim-docs/2017/december_124.pdf>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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).
Brazilian fish stocks decrease annually. Therefore, investing in creating native species of Brazilian basins may be an alternative for developing more sustainable fishing farming, reducing the negative impacts of IASs in Brazilian waters, and increasing the supply of these fish in the market. In 2022, native species represented 31.04% of national production, with 267,060 t produced (262,370 t in 2021)(4040 Associação Brasileira Da Piscicultura. Anuário 2023 - Peixe BR da Piscicultura. São Paulo: Associação Brasileira de Psicultura, 2021 p 9. Available from: < https://www.peixebr.com.br/anuario/>. Accessed in: 07 maio. 2023.
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). A highlight of the period was tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), Brazil’s second most cultivated species, reaching 94,593,371 produced tons in 2021(4141 Instituto Brasileiro De Geografia E Estatística. Pecuária/Panorama/Pesquisas. 2021. Available from: < https://sidra.ibge.gov.br/tabela/3940#resultado> Accessed in: 09 maio de 2023.
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). The northern region is the leading producer of native fish (53.7%), totaling 143,500 t in 2022. The northeastern region totaled 56,580 t, while the eastern region produced 49,100 t, which decreased compared to 2021. The states with the most significant production of native fish in 2022 were: Rondônia (57,200 t), followed by Maranhão (39,100 t), Mato Grosso (38,000 t), Pará (24,200 t), and Amazonas (21,300 t)(4040 Associação Brasileira Da Piscicultura. Anuário 2023 - Peixe BR da Piscicultura. São Paulo: Associação Brasileira de Psicultura, 2021 p 9. Available from: < https://www.peixebr.com.br/anuario/>. Accessed in: 07 maio. 2023.
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). Despite the significant potential, the development of technologies involving native species is hindered by a lack of incentives. The implementation of appropriate public policies at the federal, state, and municipal levels is crucial in ensuring compliance with regional considerations for each species, particularly those species that are widely consumed.
3. List of the 12 IASs evaluated in this booklet
The species were selected according to their origin (introduced from other countries), occurrence in Brazilian watersheds, and economic importance (in fish farming), and based on studies by Sampaio and Schmidt (2013)(4242 Sampaio AB, Schmidt IB. Espécies exóticas invasoras em unidades de conservação federais do Brasil. In: Biodiversidade Brasileira, n. 2, p. 32-49, 2013.) and Latini et al. (2016)(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.) regarding IASs found in Brazil and by Lowe et al. (2000)(4343 Lowe, S. et al. 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species: a selection from the global invasive species database. [S.l.]: IUCN, 2000.), who cataloged the 100 worst IASs. Therefore, 12 IASs were chosen: grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), bigheaded carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), redbreast tilapia (Coptodon rendalli), Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), longfin tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir), African catfish (Clarias gariepinus), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and black bass (Micropterus salmoides).
This booklet, which addresses these species, presents information on their taxonomic classification, etymology, native distribution, morphology, first occurrences in Brazil, history of introduction in Brazil, reproduction, feeding habitat, behavior, and potential environmental effects. Lucas R. F. Santos made all the illustrations. In addition to this, a pamphlet was prepared with the most relevant information present in this booklet.
1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844)/Common Name: grass carp
Drawing of Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The etymology of Ctenopharyngodon comes from the Greek kteis, ktenos + the Greek pharynx = pharynx + odous (Greek) = teeth. The name is related to the pharyngeal teeth of the species(4444 Shireman JV, Smith CR. Synopsis of biological data on the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1884). In: FAO Fish, Synopsis, n. 135, 1983. 86 p).
Native distribution
The grass carp (C. idella) is native to China, Russia, and West Siberia (Amur River basin), where it typically inhabits water bodies characterized by low currents(4545 Makinouchi S. Criação de carpas em água parada. In: Informe Agropecuário, Belo Horizonte, v. 6, n. 67, p. 30-47, 1980.,4444 Shireman JV, Smith CR. Synopsis of biological data on the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1884). In: FAO Fish, Synopsis, n. 135, 1983. 86 p).
Morphology
The species exhibits an elongated and cylindrical body shape, with a standard length that is 3.6-4.3 cm greater than its height. The abdomen is grayish in color, while the back displays a brown-black hue. It is characterized by large cycloid scales, with a lateral line consisting of 39-46 scales. The species possesses a terminal mouth without barbels and features two lines of laterally compressed pharyngeal teeth. It possesses a caudal, dorsal, and anal fin, along with one pair of ventral or pelvic fins and one pair of pectoral fins. The caudal fin is composed of approximately 24 rays, the dorsal fin has 7-8 rays, the anal fin consists of 7-11 rays, the pelvic fin displays eight rays, and the pectoral fin exhibits 16-17 rays (4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). The largest recorded individual of this species weighed 45 kg (4747 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844) Grass carp. 2023. Available from < https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Ctenopharyngodon-idella.html. Acessado em 05/05/2023
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The first record of the grass carp in Brazil was made in 1971, when the National Department of Constructions Against Droughts (DNOCS) introduced 20 individuals of the species for aquaculture farming. The arrival of the species in natural environments may have been intentional (active release) or unintentional or accidental (throughout escapes) in aquaculture enterprises, although no data are available. Since then, this species has been available in natural environments in Rio de Janeiro, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Pernambuco, and São Paulo(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Reproduction
The reproduction of this species in nature occurs between the end of winter and the beginning of spring. The reproducing individuals look for rivers with current and rocky bottoms. In aquaculture tanks, the reproduction of the species is made through artificial induction (hormone application) from the third year of life, when the reproducing individuals reach sexual maturity(4848 Moro GV, Rezende FP,Alves AL, Hashimoto DT, Varela E S, Torati LS. Espécies de peixe para piscicultura. Embrapa Pesca e Aquicultura. Capítulo 1. 2013.).
Feeding behavior
Individuals of the species feed from phytoplankton and plants available in the environment, such as leaves and seeds(4949 Hajra A. Biochemical investigations on the protein-calorie availability in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) from an aquatic weed (Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.) in the tropics. In: Aquaculture, v. 61, n. 2, p. 113-120. mar. 1987. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(87)90363-2>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). The species is herbivorous. During the initial life stages, the diet of the species includes crustaceans and other invertebrates(5050 Sigler WF, Sigler JW. Fishes of the Great Basin - a natural history. [S.l.]: University of Nevada Press, 1987. p. 344-347.).
Behavior
Individuals of this species live peacefully in groups, control the populations of plants in aquatic environments, and may be cultivated in polycultures in intensive, semi-intensive, or extensive systems. This species has significant growth potential in captivity. It is a species with hardy features for farming(5151 Takamura N, Iwata K, Fang GS, Zhu XB, Shi ZF. Feeding habits of mixed cyprinid species in a Chinese integrated fish culture pond: change in planktivorous density induces feeding changes in planktivorous carps. In: Japanese Journal of Limnology, v. 55, n. 2, p. 131-141, Osaka, 1994. DOI https://doi.org/10.3739/rikusui.55.131 Available from https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/rikusui1931/55/2/55_2_131/_article/-char/en Accessed in 14 de dez de 2022.
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).
Environmental potential effects
Because of its herbivorous feeding behavior, the grass carp (C. idella) may unbalance the primary production of aquatic ecosystems, and their excreta may contribute to the increase of organic matter in the environment(5050 Sigler WF, Sigler JW. Fishes of the Great Basin - a natural history. [S.l.]: University of Nevada Press, 1987. p. 344-347.). This species has resistant features against pathogens and parasites, which may help to propagate these harmful species to native fish in natural environments(5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.).
2. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844)/ Common name: silver carp
Drawing of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
Hypophthalmichthys: Greek, hypo = under + Greek, oftalmos = eye + Greek, ichthys = fish; molitrix: molitrix, approximately grinder (referring to the pharyngeal grinding apparatus of the species)(5353 Skelton PH. A complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern Africa. [S.l.]: Southern Book Publishers, 1993. 388 p.).
Native distribution
The silver carp (H. molitrix) has an Asian origin (China and Russia). It has similar features to other carp species, including the common carp(4848 Moro GV, Rezende FP,Alves AL, Hashimoto DT, Varela E S, Torati LS. Espécies de peixe para piscicultura. Embrapa Pesca e Aquicultura. Capítulo 1. 2013.).
Morphology
The superior portion of the body of the specimens of this species is grayish, greenish, or dark brown, being darker in their head. Their ventral region is whitish or yellowish. The species does not have marked bands or spots on the side of the body of adult individuals with 83–125 scales. The body is laterally compressed with lateral eyes. The fins vary in color, ranging from hyaline to the most pigmented hues. The caudal fin has a darker base than the ends. The anal fin has 13–15 rays. The total dorsal spines are 1–3. The dorsal rays are 6–7. The total number of anal spines is 1–3. The total anal rays are 10–14(5454 Etnier DA, Starnes WC. The fishes of Tennessee. Knoxville, USA: The University of Tennessee Press, 1993.,4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,5353 Skelton PH. A complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern Africa. [S.l.]: Southern Book Publishers, 1993. 388 p.). Silver carp may reach 50 kg throughout its lifetime(5555 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844) Silver carp. Available from < https://www.fishbase.se/summary/274. Acessado em 05/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The first attempts to introduce the species in Brazil took place in 1968 with specimens from China, Japan, and Hungary. However, this species was only effectively introduced in consortium with other species in 1983(5656 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fisheries and Aquaculture. [S.l]: FAO, 2021. Available from < https://www.fao.org/home/en/>. Accessed in: 31 ago. 2021.
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).
The species is distributed in over 65 countries and occurs in several Brazilian states. Its presence is associated with fish farming, sport fishing, and the ornamentation of spaces(5757 Kolar CS, Chapman DC, Courtenay WRJr, Housel CM, Williams JD, Jennings DP. Asian carps of the Genus Hypophthalmichthys (Pisces, Cyprinidae) - a biological synopsis and environmental risk assessment. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 183p., 2005.). This species has already been recorded in natural and artificial areas (reservoirs and dams). The silver carp occurs in the DNOCS reservoirs, São Francisco River, Paranoá Lake in the Federal District, Lagoa dos Patos, and Lagoa Mirim in Rio Grande do Sul(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Reproduction
Males of this species reach sexual age around 2 years old and females at 3 years old. In their natural habitats, reproduction occurs between the end of winter and the beginning of spring. Eggs can be incubated in environments with high ionic concentrations(5757 Kolar CS, Chapman DC, Courtenay WRJr, Housel CM, Williams JD, Jennings DP. Asian carps of the Genus Hypophthalmichthys (Pisces, Cyprinidae) - a biological synopsis and environmental risk assessment. In: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 183p., 2005.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). In farms, hormonal induction is necessary through synthetic hormones or by the pituitary gland of carp- hypophysis(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,4444 Shireman JV, Smith CR. Synopsis of biological data on the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1884). In: FAO Fish, Synopsis, n. 135, 1983. 86 p,5353 Skelton PH. A complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern Africa. [S.l.]: Southern Book Publishers, 1993. 388 p.).
Feeding behavior
This species has a phytoplanktophagous feeding behavior(5858 Associação Riograndense de Empreendimentos de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural. Orientação para criação de carpas. Rio Grande do Sul: Emater, 2018.). It feeds on small algae and has a filtering apparatus in the gill arches(5454 Etnier DA, Starnes WC. The fishes of Tennessee. Knoxville, USA: The University of Tennessee Press, 1993.). In aquaculture enterprises, the feeding of this species relies on artificial food sources due to the characteristics of its filtering apparatus. Specifically, powdered formula feeds are commonly employed(5858 Associação Riograndense de Empreendimentos de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural. Orientação para criação de carpas. Rio Grande do Sul: Emater, 2018.).
Behavior
This species is suitable for polyculture in fish farming. It grows from 1.0 to 1.5 kg/year in good conditions. The species controls phytoplankton as it consumes it as food. The species uses a special filtering apparatus present in its gill arches. Silver carp removes excess plants from the environment. The species can help improve water quality in aquaculture crops(4848 Moro GV, Rezende FP,Alves AL, Hashimoto DT, Varela E S, Torati LS. Espécies de peixe para piscicultura. Embrapa Pesca e Aquicultura. Capítulo 1. 2013.). Still, it may compete with other species when in overpopulation. The species can also treat the waste of water, domestic effluents, and pig farming(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.). Studies on the behavior of this species in the wild are still needed. The use of biological controls for this species should be rational. Therefore, monitoring the species and its place of creation is necessary.
Potential environmental effects
Through its diet based on green microalgae (phytoplankton), silver carp can help to control the excesses of plants available in water(5959 Ritter, F. et al. Analysis of economical viability of fish policulture with carp, silver catfish and Nile tilapia as an alternative of the fish farming model in small farms. In: Brazilian Journal of Aquatic Science and Technology, v. 17, n. 2, p. 27-35, 2013. Available from < 10.14210/bjast.v17n2.p27-35> Accessed in 23 de novembro de 2022.
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). Eutrophication decreases oxygenation at night and can cause asphyxiation, leading to the death of fish in aquacultures(6060 Hahn NS, Fugi R. Alimentação de peixes em reservatórios brasileiros: alterações e conseqüências nos estágios iniciais do represamento In: Revista Oecologia Brasiliensis, v. 11, n. 4, p. 469-480, 2007. Available from: <http://dx.doi.org/10.4257/oeco.2007.1104.01>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). In natural environments, this characteristic can be harmful by reducing dissolved oxygen and altering the links at the base of the food chain(5959 Ritter, F. et al. Analysis of economical viability of fish policulture with carp, silver catfish and Nile tilapia as an alternative of the fish farming model in small farms. In: Brazilian Journal of Aquatic Science and Technology, v. 17, n. 2, p. 27-35, 2013. Available from < 10.14210/bjast.v17n2.p27-35> Accessed in 23 de novembro de 2022.
https://doi.org/10.14210/bjast.v17n2.p27...
).
3. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845)/Common name: bighead carp
Drawing of Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The origin of the name of the species comes from the Greek hipo = under, ophthalmos = eyes, ichthus = fish, and nobilis: noble(6161 Kottelat M. Freshwater fishes of northern Vietnam. A preliminary check-list of the fishes known or expected to occur in northern Vietnam with comments on systematics and nomenclature. Washington: Environment and social development unit, east asia and pacific region, The World Bank, 2001. 123p. Available from: < https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2021.
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).
Native distribution
The bighead carp (H. nobilis) has an Asian origin, mainly from the Amur River basin, between the Chinese and Russian borders(6262 Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Free and open access to biodiversity data. 2021. Available from: < https://www.gbif.org>. Accessed in: 23 nov. 2020.
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).
Morphology
Small scales cover the body of this species, and there are black skin spots all over its skin, with its superior body portion grayish, greenish, or dark brown, with a darker color over its head. The ventral region has a whitish or yellowish coloration. The mouth of the species has no barbels, and the species has a sizable head, which is the greatest related to congener carp species. Its scales are tiny, and 96–120 are in its lateral line. The posterior margin of the last dorsal fin is sawed(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,6161 Kottelat M. Freshwater fishes of northern Vietnam. A preliminary check-list of the fishes known or expected to occur in northern Vietnam with comments on systematics and nomenclature. Washington: Environment and social development unit, east asia and pacific region, The World Bank, 2001. 123p. Available from: < https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2021.
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). There are registered specimens over a meter in standard length and a maximum weight of 40 kg(6363 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845) Bighead carpAvailable from < https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Aristichthys-nobilis.html. Acessado em 05/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The species arrived in Brazil between 1975 and 1983 after encouragement for its cultivation by the Federal Government(5656 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fisheries and Aquaculture. [S.l]: FAO, 2021. Available from < https://www.fao.org/home/en/>. Accessed in: 31 ago. 2021.
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). The Superintendence of Fisheries Development (SUDEPE) introduced the species in southern Brazilian regions with specimens from China(6464 Timm U. Contribuição ao conhecimento da piscicultura catarinense. III Encontro Catarinense de Aqüicultura. Anais. Caçador: ACAq, p. 49. 1988.).
The Bighead Carp is one of the most cultivated species in Brazil. Its introduction was to cater to fish farming, especially polyculture systems. The species has already been found from Rio Grande do Sul to Pernambuco(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Reproduction
Naturally, individuals of this species breed before the end of winter or the beginning of spring. It reaches sexual maturity in the first year of life, obtaining the best reproductive rates between two and five years. A female weighing 1–2 kg can produce up to 100,000 eggs and spawn three times a year. In commercial farms, reproduction is induced by synthetic hormones or the removal of the pituitary for the production of fingerlings(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,6161 Kottelat M. Freshwater fishes of northern Vietnam. A preliminary check-list of the fishes known or expected to occur in northern Vietnam with comments on systematics and nomenclature. Washington: Environment and social development unit, east asia and pacific region, The World Bank, 2001. 123p. Available from: < https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2021.
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).
Feeding behavior
The bighead carp belongs to the group of filter feeders, feeding on zooplankton, preferably(5858 Associação Riograndense de Empreendimentos de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural. Orientação para criação de carpas. Rio Grande do Sul: Emater, 2018.), and depending on availability, it may feed on phytoplankton and detritus(6565 Ojaveer, E. et al. Fishes of Estonia. Tallinn: Estonian Academy Publishers, 2003.).
Behavior
This species is eurythermic, tolerating significant temperature variations. Its specimens live in the upper water column and regions with high organic content. Reproduction in a natural environment occurs in rapids waters, 1–2 meters deep, and with vegetation on the banks(6161 Kottelat M. Freshwater fishes of northern Vietnam. A preliminary check-list of the fishes known or expected to occur in northern Vietnam with comments on systematics and nomenclature. Washington: Environment and social development unit, east asia and pacific region, The World Bank, 2001. 123p. Available from: < https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2021.
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). In regions with sudden drops in water temperature, juveniles and adults gather in large shoals and migrate to deep regions, where specimens cease their activities(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Potential environmental effects
This species is very efficient in filtering due to its highly specialized gill rakers(6666 Sagi G. The effect of filter feeding fish on water quality in irrigation reservoirs. In: Agricultural Water Management, v. 22, n. 4, p. 369-378, 1992. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3774(92)90044-W>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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), which filter particles up to 4 μm. On fish farms, adults survive in waters with brackish characteristics, which allow its occurence in several places in Brazil. In a natural environment, the species is highly competitive in the trophic chain, altering food availability and hybridizing with native species(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
4. Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758)/Common name: common carp
Drawing of Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The name of this species comes from the Latin word Cyprinus, cyprinus = carp. Carpio.
Native distribution
The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), also known as Hungarian carp, is an Asian species that has been cultivated for more than 2000 years. Distribution records indicate that the species has also been established in Europe and Africa for over 600 years (6767 SILVA, J. W. B. et al. Resultados de um ensaio sobre criação de carpa espelho, Cyprinus carpio var. specularis, em viveiro do Centro de Pesquisas Ictiologicas do DNOCs (Pente Coste, Ceará, Brasil). In: Boletim Técnico DNOCs, v. 41, n. 1, p. 145-170, 1983.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Morphology
Scale, mirror, line, and leather carp varieties are cultivated in Brazil. Specimens of the common carp have an elongated and slightly depressed body. Their color is variable, and the upper part of the body may be grayish or greenish-brown (back). Ventral region whitish, yellowish, or golden. There are no apparent bands or spots on the side of the body, which have 32–38 scales under the lateral line. The mouth of the specimens of the species is slightly subterminal, with a pair of maxillary barbels (shorter on the upper lip). Pharyngeal teeth 5:5, long dorsal fin with 17–22 rays, and a strong spine in the front. Anal fin with 6–7 rays(6868 Kottelat M, Freyhof J. Handbook of european freshwater fishes. Berlin: Maurice Kottelat, 2007. 646p. Available from: <https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 3 jan. 2021.
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,4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.). The heaviest individual recorded weighed 40.1 kg(6969 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) Common carp. 2023. Available from < https://fishbase.se/summary/Cyprinuscarpio.html. Acessado em 06/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The first record of the species in Brazil is from 1982, when it was introduced into the country from the United States(7070 Graeff A, Pruner EM. Efeito da densidade de povoamento na produtividade final em carpas (Cyprinus carpio var specularis) em fase de engorda, durante o verão. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, v. 29, n. 3, p. 639-645. 2000.). Still, the species was recorded in São Paulo as far as 1904, with specimens brought from Germany to the municipality of Piracicaba(7171 Makinouchi S. Criação de carpas em água parada. In: Informe Agropecuário, Belo Horizonte, v. 6, n. 67, p. 30-47, 1980.). The species has already been found in the natural environments of at least 15 states of the Brazilian federation (in biomes such as the Pantanal, Amazon, Cerrado, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Coastal regions)(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Reproduction
This species reproduces from May to June. Spawning occurs in shallow waters with good plant availability so that the eggs can adhere and the embryo can develop. In each spawning event, the number of eggs a female weighing 1.0 kg releases is estimated at more than 100,000(7272 Castagnolli N, Cyrino JEP. Piscicultura nos trópicos. São Paulo: Manole, 1986.,7373 Mitra-Nature. Biodiversidade da Herdade da Mitra. Instituto de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais Mediterrânicas-Ecosystem functioning and conservation group, Universidade de Évora, 2014. Available from: <http://www.mitra-nature.uevora.pt>. Accessed in: 3 mar. 2021.
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). One to three spawning events occur during the reproduction period.
Feeding behavior
The common carp is omnivorous and feeds on detritus, vegetables, insects, crustaceans, small mollusks, earthworms, etc.(7474 Golombieski JI, Marchezan E, Monti MB, Storck, Camargo ER, Santos FM. Qualidade da água no consórcio de peixes com arroz irrigado. In: Ciência Rural, v. 35, n. 6, p. 1263-1268, nov.-dez. 2005. Santa Maria: UFSM, 2005. Available from: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26414387_Qualidade_da_agua_no_consorcio_de_peixes_com_arroz_irrigado>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). Nevertheless, specimens of this species prefer benthonic invertebrates when possible. The mouth of this species is protractile and terminal, and two pairs of barbels have a sensory function(4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,7373 Mitra-Nature. Biodiversidade da Herdade da Mitra. Instituto de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais Mediterrânicas-Ecosystem functioning and conservation group, Universidade de Évora, 2014. Available from: <http://www.mitra-nature.uevora.pt>. Accessed in: 3 mar. 2021.
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). On the Iguaçu River, their food consists of superior plants(7575 Hahn NS, Fugi R, Almeida VLL, Russo MR, Loreiro VE Dieta e atividade alimentar de peixes do reservatório de Segredo. p. 141 -162. In: AGOSTINHO, A. A.; GOMES, L. C. (ed.). Reservatório de Segredo: bases ecológicas para manejo, v. 37, Maringá, 1997.).
Behavior
The common carp is a benthic species greatly infuenced by water temperature, which affects its spawning and feeding behavior(7676 Tamassia STJ. Carpa comum (Cyprinus carpio): produção de alevinos. In: Boletim Técnico, v. 76, p. 75, 1996. Florianópolis: Epagri, 1996.). The species preferentially lives in lentic environments composed of thin substrates, vegetation, and water availability at high temperatures (1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). During the winter, specimens of the species are sheltered at the bottom of the watercourse. The specimens can sometimes bury themselves in the available substrate, decreasing their activities while awaiting the spring(6868 Kottelat M, Freyhof J. Handbook of european freshwater fishes. Berlin: Maurice Kottelat, 2007. 646p. Available from: <https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 3 jan. 2021.
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).
Potential environmental effects
This species is widely cultivated due to its hardiness, disease resistance, and high fertility. It supports certain variations in temperature and water quality(7777 Casaca JM, Tomazelli Junior O. O planejamento da piscicultura no município de Chapecó. Aquicultura e Pesca. Florianópolis: Epagri, 1997. 70p.). It is tolerant to the low availability of dissolved oxygen resulting from these variations and its simple management compared to other species. All these cultivation characteristics make it very present in fish farming stations, and its introduction harms natural environments. Other impacts of this species in the natural environment are mainly related to changes in water quality and increasing turbidity in the water column due to its feeding behavior (removing the bottom water)(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). This species is a strong competitor of native species in natural environments. It preys upon fish eggs, fish larvae, and invertebrates(5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.).
5. Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758)/Common name: Nile tilapia
Drawing of Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The name of the species comes from Oreochromis (Latin), aurum = gold + chromis (Greek) = fish. Niloticus = Amharic (Ethiopian) word meaning “warm spring”(7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.).
Native distribution
The Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) is native to rivers of the Israeli coast (the junction of the African continent) and African rivers, including the Nile(7979 El Sayed AFM. Tilapia culture. London: CABI Publishing. 2006.,8080 Miranda JC, Azevedo-Silva CE, Mazzoni R. Ocorrência da tilápia do Nilo oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758 na microbacia do Rio Mato Grosso, Saquarema, Estado do Rio de Janeiro. In: Revista de Saúde e Biologia, v. 5, n. 2, 2010. Available from: <http://periodicos.grupointegrado.br/revista/index.php/sabios/article/view/622>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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).
Morphology
The species has a compressed body with dark and regular vertical stripes on its caudal fin. It has a silver-green coloration on the side of its body. There are 27–33 tracks on its first branchial arch. Its dorsal fin has 16–17 spines and 11–15 flexible rays; the anal fin has three spines and 10–11 flexible rays and the caudal fin is truncated(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.). Males may appear bluish-pink and have dark throats, bellies, and anal and pelvic fins. Conversely, females may be brownish, silvery, or white and have thin vertical bars. The maximum recorded weight for the species was 4.3 kg(8181 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus 1758) Nile tilápia. Available from https://fishbase.se/summary/Oreochromisniloticus.html. Acessado em 06/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
This species has been cultivated in several countries. In Brazil, its farming began in the 1970s(8282 Watanabe W, Losordo TM, Fitzsimmons KM, Hanley F. Tilapia production systems in the americas: technological advances, trends, and challenges. In: Reviews in Fisheries Science, v. 10, n. 3-4, p. 465-498, 2002.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,8080 Miranda JC, Azevedo-Silva CE, Mazzoni R. Ocorrência da tilápia do Nilo oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758 na microbacia do Rio Mato Grosso, Saquarema, Estado do Rio de Janeiro. In: Revista de Saúde e Biologia, v. 5, n. 2, 2010. Available from: <http://periodicos.grupointegrado.br/revista/index.php/sabios/article/view/622>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). Through DNOCS, the Brazilian government imported the species mainly for cultivation in reservoirs in the Northeast to replace C. rendalli, the first tilapia species introduced in the country, which exhibited low weight gain(8383 Starling FLRM. Análise experimental dos efeitos da tilápia do congo (Tilapia rendalli) e da carpa prateada (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) sobre a estrutura da comunidade planctônica do lago Paranoá, Brasília (DF). In: Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, v. 6, p. 144-156, Botucatu, 1993.).
Nile tilapia occurs in all the main river basins in the country(8484 INSTITUTO HÓRUS – Instituto Hórus de Desenvolvimento e Conservação Ambiental/The Nature Conservancy. Base de Dados sobre Espécies Exóticas Invasoras em I3N-Brasil. 2022. <https://bd.institutohorus.org.br/peixes-aquicultura> Accessed in novembro /2022.
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). It occurs in artificial and natural environments of the Atlantic Forest, Cerrado, Pantanal, Caatinga, and Amazon biomes, although its presence is more noticeable in the northeast and southeast regions(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.,8383 Starling FLRM. Análise experimental dos efeitos da tilápia do congo (Tilapia rendalli) e da carpa prateada (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) sobre a estrutura da comunidade planctônica do lago Paranoá, Brasília (DF). In: Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, v. 6, p. 144-156, Botucatu, 1993.).
Reproduction
Reproduction in tilapia occurs from three to six months of age, depending on the species. Spawning can occur more than four times a year. During reproduction, the male becomes more aggressive, defends its territory from the presence of other individuals, courts the female, and digs the nest(7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.). During this period, males also display and typically have a reddish belly. Once the nest is ready, any attracted female will enter and release the eggs. Afterward, the male releases the semen. After fertilization, the female incubates the eggs in her mouth and leaves the nest (she is the one who protects the offspring), while the male arranges the nest and searches for new females to reproduce(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.). Reproduction is split and early (in captivity), lasting 4–5 months(8585 Lund VX, Figeira MLOA. Criação de tilápias. São Paulo: Livraria Nobel. p.63, 1989.), when the specimens reach 30 g(8686 De Graaf GJ, Galemoni F, Huisman EA. Reproductive biology of pond-reared Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L. Aquaculture Research. V.30, p. 25–33. 1999.).
Feeding behavior
This species is omnivorous and feeds on zooplankton and phytoplankton. However, its diet may vary according to ontogeny and environmental and seasonal changes. Therefore, this is an opportunistic species(8787 Starling F, Lazzaro X, Cavalcanti C, Moreira R. Contribution of omnivorous tilapia to eutrophication of a shallow tropical reservoir: evidence from a fish kill. Freshwater Biology, v. 47, p. 2443-2452, 2002.).
Behavior
Individuals of the species perform parental care efficiently, protecting their offspring from predators(8888 Filho EZ. Piscicultura de espécies exóticas de água doce. In: POLI, C. R. et al. Aqüicultura: experiências brasileiras, p. 309-336 Florianópolis: Multitarefa, 2004.,8989 McKayke KR. et al. African tilapia in Lake Nicaragua: ecosystem in transition. In: BioScience, v. 45, n. 6, p. 406-411, 1995. Available from <https://doi.org/10.2307/1312721> Accessed in 21 de janeiro de 2021.
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). In addition to being easy to adapt to climatic variations, this species supports temperature variations from 8 to 42 ºC. It survives in brackish waters with low levels of dissolved oxygen, high concentrations of ammonia and salinity, and significant pH variation (between 6 and 8.5). This species is diurnal and has excellent reproductive capacity. It is resistant to diseases and infections(8080 Miranda JC, Azevedo-Silva CE, Mazzoni R. Ocorrência da tilápia do Nilo oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758 na microbacia do Rio Mato Grosso, Saquarema, Estado do Rio de Janeiro. In: Revista de Saúde e Biologia, v. 5, n. 2, 2010. Available from: <http://periodicos.grupointegrado.br/revista/index.php/sabios/article/view/622>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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,7979 El Sayed AFM. Tilapia culture. London: CABI Publishing. 2006.,7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Potential environmental effects
Nile tilapia accounts for more than 90% of aquaculture production in Brazil(4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,8080 Miranda JC, Azevedo-Silva CE, Mazzoni R. Ocorrência da tilápia do Nilo oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758 na microbacia do Rio Mato Grosso, Saquarema, Estado do Rio de Janeiro. In: Revista de Saúde e Biologia, v. 5, n. 2, 2010. Available from: <http://periodicos.grupointegrado.br/revista/index.php/sabios/article/view/622>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). Specifically, the states of Paraná, São Paulo, and Santa Catarina are the main producing centers of these species(9090 Associação Brasileira Da Piscicultura. Anuário 2020 - Peixe BR da Piscicultura. São Paulo: Associação Brasileira de Psicultura, 2020. p. 1-136. Available from: <https://www.peixebr.com.br/anuario-2020/>. Accessed in: 27 jul. 2021.
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). This species has a significant invasive capacity, as it is resistant to pathogens and parasites, posing a threat to native fish populations once it establishes itself easily in new environments(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). Due to releases or escapes, the arrival of this species in natural ecosystems can cause a decrease in the population density of native species, making the species dominant in these places(5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.). Nile tilapia can affect zooplankton biomass through predation or indirectly by consuming its food resources such as phytoplankton and suspended debris(9191 Diana JS, Dettweiler DJ, Kwein LC. Efect of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) on the ecosystem of aquaculture ponds, and its significance to the trophic cascade hypothesis. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, v. 48, p. 183-190. 1991.,9292 Elhigzi FAR, Haider SA, Larsson, P. Interactions between Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and cladocerans in ponds (Khartoum, Sudan). Hydrobiologia, v. 307, n. 1-3, p. 263-272, July, 1995.,9393 Figueredo CC, Giani A. Ecological interactions between Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus, L.) and the phytoplanktonic community of the Furnas Reservoir (Brazil). Freshwater Biology. V. 50, p. 1391-1403. 2005.). Additionally, the presence of the species has been associated with changes in water quality(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
6. Coptodon rendalli (Boulenger, 1897)/Common name: redbreast tilapia
Drawing of Coptodon rendalli (Boulenger, 1897) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
Tilapia is a name that originates from the African dialect Bechuana, which means fish(4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.).
Native distribution
The redbreast tilapia (C. rendalli, Boulenger, 1897) is native to the Congo River basin, Tanganyika Lake, Malawi Lake, Zambeze River, and coastal zones from the Zambeze River delta(9494 Dunz AR, Schliewen UK. Molecular phylogeny and revised classification of the haplotilapiine cichlid fishes formerly referred to as “Tilapia”. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, v. 68, n. 1, p. 64-80, 2013. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2013.03.015>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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).
Morphology
This species has an olive-green color, dark spots across its body, and a yellow or red belly. Its dorsal fin is olive green, with a red and white to dark gray margin and oblique spots. The caudal fin is punctuated on the dorsal portion and red or yellow on the ventral portion of its body. They have 15–17 spines and 10–13 dorsal-fin rays, three spines, and 9–10 anal-fin rays(4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,9494 Dunz AR, Schliewen UK. Molecular phylogeny and revised classification of the haplotilapiine cichlid fishes formerly referred to as “Tilapia”. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, v. 68, n. 1, p. 64-80, 2013. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2013.03.015>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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). The heaviest individual recorded was 2.5 kg(9595 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Coptodon rendalli (Boulenger, 1897) Redbreast tilápia. 2023. Available from < https://www.fishbase.se/summary/1397. Accessed in: 06/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
Redbreast tilapia was the first tilapia species introduced in Brazil, arriving in the country in 1950 through the São Paulo hydroelectric concessionaire (Light) and in 1952 by the Secretary of Agriculture of the State of São Paulo. These introductions occurred to repopulate the dams and as an alternative to the proliferation of aquatic macrophyte algae that clogged hydroelectric turbines(9696 Godoy MP. Criação de peixe. Pirassununga: Estação Experimental Biology. Piscicultura, p.24, 1959.). Although it is commonly found in the country, its cultivation is discouraged due to its low weight gain and early reproduction performance. This species is widespread throughout the country, being found in natural environments in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Mato Grosso do Sul, Federal District, Pernambuco, and Amapá(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Reproduction
Males nest in clean, shallow, and well-oxygenated water. The male protects the nest and seeks to attract the female for mating. After spawning, the male fertilizes the eggs, the female keeps them in her mouth, where they remain until a week before birth, and the male leaves the territory. The female’s care for the eggs is essential, as they need to be maintained well-oxygenated and protected from exposure to pathogens and predator attacks. Parental care toward the offspring lasts two to three weeks after birth(1212 Agostinho AA, Vitorino Junior OB, Pelicice F. Nota Técnica: riscos ambientais do cultivo de tilápia em tanques redes. In: Boletim Sociedade Brasileira de Ictiologia, n. 124. Londrina: SBI, dez. 2017. Available from: <https://www.sbi.bio.br/images/sbi/boletim-docs/2017/december_124.pdf>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,9494 Dunz AR, Schliewen UK. Molecular phylogeny and revised classification of the haplotilapiine cichlid fishes formerly referred to as “Tilapia”. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, v. 68, n. 1, p. 64-80, 2013. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2013.03.015>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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). This species has a sexual dimorphism, in which males are larger than females. Males have a thorn in their dorsal fins, and the tips of the dorsal and anal fins are pointed and elongated. In females, these structures are rounded(4646 Baumgartner G, Pavanelli CS, Baumgartner D, Bifi AG, Debona T, Frana VA. Peixes do baixo rio Iguaçú. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá. 2012. 203p.,9494 Dunz AR, Schliewen UK. Molecular phylogeny and revised classification of the haplotilapiine cichlid fishes formerly referred to as “Tilapia”. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, v. 68, n. 1, p. 64-80, 2013. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2013.03.015>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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).
Feeding behavior
This species is generalist and omnivorous, having multiple feeding sources(9797 Abilhoa V. Ictiofauna. In: Andreoli C V, Carneiro C. Gestão integrada de mananciais de abastecimento eutrofizados. Curitiba: Gráfica Capital Ltda, 2005. p. 437-456. 500,9898 Lazzaro X. Feeding convergence in South American and African zooplanktivorous cichlids Geophagus brasiliensis and Tilapia rendalli. In: Environmental Biology of Fishes, v. 31, p. 283-293, jul. 1991. Available from: <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00000693>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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,9999 Winemiller KO, Kelso-Winemiller LC. Food habits of tilapiine cichlids of the Upper Zambezi River and foodplain during descending phase of the hydrologic cycle. In: Journal of Fish Biology, v. 63, p. 120-128, London, 2003.,8383 Starling FLRM. Análise experimental dos efeitos da tilápia do congo (Tilapia rendalli) e da carpa prateada (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) sobre a estrutura da comunidade planctônica do lago Paranoá, Brasília (DF). In: Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, v. 6, p. 144-156, Botucatu, 1993.) that vary depending on the life stage and season.
Behavior
This species supports a specific variation in water temperature and salinity. During reproduction, it searches for vegetated areas with shallow waters to build its nest and spawn. This species features biparental care(9494 Dunz AR, Schliewen UK. Molecular phylogeny and revised classification of the haplotilapiine cichlid fishes formerly referred to as “Tilapia”. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, v. 68, n. 1, p. 64-80, 2013. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2013.03.015>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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). Under favorable temperature conditions for the species, spawning can occur within 50–60 days. It survives in an environment with high salinity. The species is a benthopelagic freshwater species capable of doubling its population in 4.5 years(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Potential environmental effects
Like other tilapia species, redbreast tilapia is harmful to native populations when introduced in environments outside of cultivation. Therefore, this species alters the diversity of local species and reproduces quickly. Their offspring have a high survival rate and a significant resistance to environmental adversities. The species supports a certain degree of eutrophication, is tolerant to parasites, propagates them to native species, and has low food selectivity(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,100100 Oliveira, E. G. et al. Circular técnica 45 - produção de tilápia: mercado, espécie, biologia e recria. Embrapa, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. ISSN 0104-7633. Teresina, PI: Embrapa, 2007. Available from < https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/34992/1/Circular45.pdf> Accessed in 05 de julho de 2022.
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).
7. Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852)/Common name: Mozambique tilapia
Drawing of Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The etymology of the species comes from the Latin Oreochromis: aurum = gold + the Greek chromis = a fish; mossambicus comes from the Greek words oreos = from the mountains and chroma = color; mossambicus describes a geographic area, Mozambique, from which the species is native(7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.).
Native distribution
The Mozambique tilapia (O. mossambicus, Peters, 1852) is native to southeastern Africa, specifically the Bushman River basin in the Eastern Cape to the Zambezi River delta(101101 Bruton MN, Boltt RE. Aspects of the biology of Tilapia mossambica Peters (Pisces: Cichlidae) in a natural freshwater lake (Lake Sibaya, South Africa). In: Journal of Fish Biology, v. 7, n. 4, p. 423–445. UK: FSBI, 1975.,102102 Cooper JAG, Harrison TD. Effects of nesting activities of Oreochromis mossambicus (Pisces: Cichlidae) on bank stability in small lagoons. In: South African Journal of Science, v. 88, p. 398–401. 1992.).
Morphology
The dorsal fin of this species has 15–16 spines and 10–13 rays, while the anal fin has three spines and 7–12 soft rays. Its head has considerably large scales, starting with two scales between the eyes and then nine scales up to the dorsal fin. Males have an elongated and pointed mouth due to enlarged mandibles, often causing the upper profile to become concave(7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.). The heaviest recorded individual weighed 1.1 kg(103103 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852) Mozambique tilápia. Available from < https://fishbase.se/summary/Oreochromis-mossambicus.html. Acessado em 06/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The species was introduced in 1981 for genetic crosses to be performed with another tilapia species for cultivation in fish farming(104,105). There are hybrid individuals in Brazil produced from O. urolepis hornorum and O. mossambicus called redbreast tilapia or Florida tilapia(100100 Oliveira, E. G. et al. Circular técnica 45 - produção de tilápia: mercado, espécie, biologia e recria. Embrapa, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. ISSN 0104-7633. Teresina, PI: Embrapa, 2007. Available from < https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/34992/1/Circular45.pdf> Accessed in 05 de julho de 2022.
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).
Overall, tilapia are among the 100 worst-introduced species. They occur in over 90 countries, spread across five continents(106106 Hasan V, Pratama FS, Malonga WAM, Cahyanurani AB. First record of the Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus Peters, 1852 (Perciformes, Cichlidae), on Kangean Island, Indonesia. In: Neotropical Biology and Conservation, v. 14, n. 2, p. 207–211, 22 jul. 2019. Available from < https://doi.org/10.3897/neotropical.14.e35601> Accessed in 21 de Janeiro de 2021.
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,107107 Russell DJ, Thuesen PA, Thomson FE. A review of the biology, ecology, distribution and control of Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters 1852) (Pisces: Cichlidae) with particular emphasis on invasive Australian populations. In: Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, v. 22, n. 3, p. 533–554, 2012. Available from < http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11160-0119249-z> Accessed in 23 de novembro de 2022.
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). There are 77 species of tilapia described and divided into four genera: Sarotherodon, Oreochromis, Petrotilapia, and Tilapia. Although the disclosure of records of the species O. mossambicus in Brazilian waters is still not very restricted, there are data on its occurrence in the wild; an example is in the Tietê River, in the municipality of Buritama(108108 Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Free and open access to biodiversity data. 2021. Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852) Mozambique tilápia. Available from < https://www.gbif.org/pt/species/2372396. Acessado em 06/05/2023.
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). There is also an occurrence of O. mossambicus in the wild in Paraíba(5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.).
Reproduction
Spawning in lakes typically occurs on the edges, with sandy or muddy bottoms. The male makes the nest and defends the territory in search of a partner to mate. The nest is excavated by making a basin-shaped hole in the center of its territory, where the female lays 100–1700 eggs, and the male fertilizes them. After fertilization, the female incubates the eggs alone. The fries hatch in the female's mouth after 3–5 days, depending on temperature(109109 Lima Júnior DP, Latini AO. E se a aquicultura se expandir no Brasil? In: Ciência Hoje, v. 38, n. 226, p. 58-60, 2006.,7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.). The hatchlings are released from the mouth between 10–14 days but remain close to the female and enter her mouth, if threatened, until about three weeks old. In the initial phase, the hatchlings and schools of juveniles look for shallow waters, where they feed during the day, and look for deep waters at night. Females rear several litters during a season, beginning sexual activity from four months of age. The same female spawns more than four times a year. However, in cultivation in warm regions, spawning occurs throughout the year(100100 Oliveira, E. G. et al. Circular técnica 45 - produção de tilápia: mercado, espécie, biologia e recria. Embrapa, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. ISSN 0104-7633. Teresina, PI: Embrapa, 2007. Available from < https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/34992/1/Circular45.pdf> Accessed in 05 de julho de 2022.
https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/...
,7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.).
Feeding behavior
This species is omnivorous. Its diet includes various food types, such as algae, insects, crustaceans, fish, etc. It is also a generalist tilapia species, but its habits may vary according to the life stage(5656 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fisheries and Aquaculture. [S.l]: FAO, 2021. Available from < https://www.fao.org/home/en/>. Accessed in: 31 ago. 2021.
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).
Behavior
This species has diurnal habits(5353 Skelton PH. A complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern Africa. [S.l.]: Southern Book Publishers, 1993. 388 p.) and can withstand temperature variations, living well in brackish waters with high salinity(110110 Gupta MV, Acosta BO. A review of global tilapia farming practices. Aquacult. Asia, v. 9, n. 1, p. 7-12, 16. 2004.). It performs parental care for the offspring. The female incubates the eggs, being able to form schools of fish(111111 Bardach JE, Ruther JH, McLarney WO. Aquaculture: the farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine organisms. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972. 868 p. Available from: < https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19731405790> Accessed in: 12 dez. 2021.
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). It is considered one of the most successful freshwater invasive exotic fish worldwide(112112 Gupta MV, Acosta BO. A review of global tilapia farming practices. Aquacult. Asia, v. 9, n. 1, p. 7-12, 16. 2004.,113113 Martin CW, Valentine MM, Valentine JF. Competitive interactions between invasive Nile tilapia and native fish: The potential for altered trophic exchange and modification of food webs. Plos One. v.5. n. 12. p: 1–6. 2010.). It tolerates variations in salinity(114114 De Moor FC, Wilkinson RC, Herbst HM. 1986. Food and feeding habits of Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) in hypertrophic Hartbeesport Dam. South Africa. South Africa Journal of Zoology. v.21. p. 170–176. 1986.,115115 Shelton WL, Popma TJ. Biology. In: Lim CE, Webster CD (Eds). Tilapia: Biology, Culture, and Nutrition. Haworth Press, New York, 1–49. 2006.).
Potential environmental effects
As with other tilapia species, their introduction into natural environments can drastically affect fresh and brackish water biota since they compete for food, niches, and other resources. It alters the physical-chemical patterns of water and is a vector for pathogens that cause diseases. In general, tilapias tolerate temperature and water variations with little dissolved oxygen. They have a significant reproductive capacity and parental care that contribute to the increase in population in invaded ecosystems(116116 Webb A. Maughan M. Pest fish profiles Oreochromis mossambicus - Mozambique tilápia. ACTFR, James Cook University, 2007. Available from <https://www.researchgate.net/> Accessed in maio/2023
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, 117117 Barker DE, Cone DK. and Burt MDB. 2002. Trichodinam urmanica (Ciliophora) and Gyrodactylus pleuronecti (Monogenea) parasitizing hatchery reared winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Walbaum): effects on host growth na assessment of parasite interaction. Journal of Fish Desease. v.25. p. 81–89. 2002.,118118 Cucherousset J. & Olden JD. Ecological impacts of non-native freshwater fishes. Fisheries. v.36, n. 5, p. 215–230. 2011.).
8. Oreochromis macrochir (Boulenger, 1912)/Common name: longfin tilapia
Drawing of Oreochromis macrochir (Boulenger, 1912) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The name of the species Oreochromis comes from the Latin word aurum = gold + the Greek word chromis = a fish, maybe a perch macrochir and from the Greek word macros = big and the Greek "cheir" = hand or pectoral fin in fish, referring to the sizable pectoral fin(119119 Lamboj A. The cichlid fishes of Western Africa. Germany: Birgit Schmettkamp Verlag, 2004. 255 p.).
Native distribution
This species is natural to the African continent, occurring on the upper reaches of the Zambezi and Congo Rivers(120120 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Oreochromis macrochir (Boulenger, 1912) Longfin tilapia Available from < https://www.fishbase.se/summary/1396. Acessado em 06/05/2023.
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).
Morphology
This species has very long pectoral fins that can reach the caudal fin. The dorsal fin has 15–17 spines and 11–14 rays. The body has greenish, silvery, or light yellowish colors. The belly is whitish or yellowish, and has brown or black spots in the temporal region, in the operculum below the eyes. Usually, the head is large in males. It has 7–8 rows of transverse spots present on the caudal fin(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.). The maximum recorded length was 43.3 cm. There is no information on the maximum weight of the species(121121 Nico L. 2023, Oreochromis macrochir (Boulenger, 1912): U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL, 2023. Available from < https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=465> Accessed in 06/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The first record of the species in the wild occurred in the municipality of Porto Seguro (Bahia) in the Buranhém River(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). The species was also recorded in 10 reservoirs in Paraíba, with fish farming related to its introduction, where escapes took place(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.). It is still little cultivated in the country, although farming in net cages is practiced in the Grande River in Barra, Bahia. The species was introduced into the country for fish farming.
Reproduction
The reproductive period runs from September to March in the southern regions of the original distribution of the species. Males build nests in shallow water and defend them. The nest is a volcano-shaped central mound with a flat or slightly concave top. The male protects his territory and searches for partners. He courts several females in succession, and these can mate with more than one male in the same summer, forming large populations of young individuals. Several nests were built. When the male attracts a female to his den, both fish swim toward the center of the nest. Then, the female lays her eggs— 500 to 2,000 per clutch—and the male (with a genital papilla approximately 25-mm long) swims over them. The female performs parental care. A female can carry up to 1,300 eggs in her mouth. The eggs have a diameter of 3 mm and are greenish-brown in color; a female can reproduce for several seasons at intervals of about five weeks. They seek shelter in places with vegetation during the reproductive period(122122 Bell-Cross, G. The fishes of Rhodesia. Rhodesia: National Museums and Monuments of Rhodesia, 1976. 268 p. Burgess WE. An atlas of freshwater and marine catfishes: a preliminary survey of the Siluriformes. Neptune City: T.F.H. Publications, 1989. 784p.,7878 Trewavas E. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. London, British: Natural History, 1983. p. 583.).
Feeding behavior
Young fish consume invertebrates and zooplankton to feed themselves. Nevertheless, this habit is lost with advancing age, as the fish start to feed preferentially on plants, algae, insects, crustaceans, seeds, fruits, and roots(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.).
Behavior
This species has an excellent reproduction capacity and parental care for its offspring. The female incubates the eggs and protects the young in her mouth, ensuring their survival and contributing to the establishment of their populations. In breeding territory, individuals make a nest with an accumulation of sediments with a concave upper part. Individuals of this species can withstand temperature variations from 18 to 35ºC(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Potential environmental effects
Although information on the impacts of introducing this species into continental waters in Brazil is scarce (compared to other tilapia species), it is known to be similar to those already reported for other congener species. This species is a strong competitor with native species, preying on fish and zooplankton(5252 Leão TCC, Almeida WR, Dechoum M, Ziller SR. Espécies Exóticas Invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas. Cepan. Recife. 2011.). This species habitually turns over the bottom of aquatic environments to make nests. This process leads to alterations in the physical–chemical patterns of the water. Additionally, O. macrochir represents a danger to the population growth of native species since its population increases quickly.
9. Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822)/Common name: African catfish
Drawing of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The name Clarias comes from the Greek word chlaros = vivid, in reference to the ability of fish to live a long time out of water. Gariepinus was named after the river in which it was found, the Gariep River in South Africa.
Native distribution
The African catfish (C. gariepinus), Clariidae family, has Asian origins. It is naturally distributed in southern and northern Africa, the Middle East, Israel, Syria, and southern Turkey(123123 Burgess WE. An atlas of freshwater and marine catfishes: a preliminary survey of the Siluriformes. Neptune City: T.F.H. Publications, 1989. 784p.,124124 De Graaf G, Janssen H. Artificial reproduction and pond rearing of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus in sub-Saharan África – a handbook. Italy: FAO, 1996. 73p.). It is a species introduced in other locations in Africa, Asia, and Europe(125125 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. 2019. Available from:< https://www.fishbase.se/search.php/>. Accessed in: 12 dez. 2021.
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).
Morphology
The African catfish has an anguilliform body with long dorsal and anal fins. Its bony head is large and flattened (depressed), its eyes are small, and its mouth is wide and terminal, with four pairs of barbels (external mandibular barbel longer than the inner pair). The teeth in the premaxilla and lower jaw are small, thin, and arranged in several rows(126126 Bruton MN. The food and feeding behaviour of Clarias gariepinus (Pisces, Clariidae) in Lake Sibaya, South Africa, with its emphasis on its role as a predator of cichlids. In: Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, v. 35, p. 47-114. South Africa: Department os Zoology and Entomology, 1979.,127127 Hee NH. Two new species of catfishes of the genus Clarias from Borneo (Teleostei: Clariidae). In: The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, v. 47, p. 17-32, 1999. Singapore: National University of Singapore, 1999. Available from: < https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/app/uploads/2017/06/47rbz017032.pdf>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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,125125 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. 2019. Available from:< https://www.fishbase.se/search.php/>. Accessed in: 12 dez. 2021.
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). The dorsal fin has a translucent base without spines. The anal fin is long without spines, with a red body and base and white anterior and black posterior borders. Other fins with translucent bases and red body. This species does not have an adipose fin(125125 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. 2019. Available from:< https://www.fishbase.se/search.php/>. Accessed in: 12 dez. 2021.
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). There are occurrences of individuals with an average length of up to 1.5 m and reaching up to 60 kg in their native distribution(128128 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) North African catfish. 2023. Available from < https://fishbase.se/summary/Clarias-gariepinus.html. Accessed in 08/05/2023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
It was introduced and dispersed irregularly in Brazil. Its arrival is related to aquaculture activity. The introduction began in 1986 when there were illegal escapes that allowed the establishment of the species in the inland waters of the country(129129 Alves CBN, Vono V, Vieira F. Presence of the walking catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell) (Siluriformes, Clariidae) in Minas Gerais state hydrographie basins, Brazil. In: Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, v. 16, n. 1, 1999. p.259-263.,130130 Nakatani K, Agostinho AA., Baumgartner G, Bialetzki A, Sanches PV, Makrakis MC, Pavanelli CS. Ovos e larvas de peixes de água doce: desenvolvimento e manual de identificação. Maringá: Eduem, 2001.,5656 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fisheries and Aquaculture. [S.l]: FAO, 2021. Available from < https://www.fao.org/home/en/>. Accessed in: 31 ago. 2021.
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). Currently, its occurrence has been observed in several basins in Brazil(131131 Braun AS, Fontoura NF, Milani PCC. Registro da Introdução de Clarias gariepinus (Siluriformes, Clariidae) na Laguna dos Patos, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. In: Biociências, Porto Alegre, v. 11, n. 1, p. 101-102, jun. 2003.). The first occurrence of the species was recorded in a natural environment in the Itajaí-Açu River in Santa Catarina in 1989(132132 Weyl OLF. Et al. A review of Clarias gariepinus invasions in Brazil and South Africa. Journal of Fish Biology, v. 89, n. 1, p. 386-402, 2016.). The species has already been recorded in eight Brazilian states, namely: Minas Gerais, Santa Catarina, São Paulo, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, and Goiás(133133 Fischer, W. et al. Fichas FAO de identificação de espécies para atividades de pesca. Guia de campo das espécies comerciais marinhas e de águas salobras de Moçambique. Roma, Itália: FAO, 1990. 424p. Available from: <https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/c9eabe7a-8816-59bb-8613-bb41a43d8082>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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,134134 Taylor WRA. In: Daget J, Audenaerde DFE. (ed.). Checklist of the freshwater fishes of Africa, v. 2, 1986. p. 153-159.).
Reproduction
The breeding season of the species occurs during the flood period, between July and December in its native distribution and from November to March in Brazil(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Feeding behavior
This species is omnivorous, with a diet consisting of several food items such as small fish, crustaceans, insects, small amphibians, aquatic plants, seeds, and fruits(135135 Milli PSM, Teixeira RL. Notas ecológicas do bagre-africano, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) (Teleostei, Clariidae), de um córrego do Sudeste do Brasil. In: Boletim do Museu de Biologia Mello Leitão, v. 9, p. 45-51, 2006.). Its diet varies according to environmental food availability(126126 Bruton MN. The food and feeding behaviour of Clarias gariepinus (Pisces, Clariidae) in Lake Sibaya, South Africa, with its emphasis on its role as a predator of cichlids. In: Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, v. 35, p. 47-114. South Africa: Department os Zoology and Entomology, 1979.).
Behavior
Individuals of this species are nocturnal, predatory, and opportunistic. In the natural environment, they move over moist soil during long periods of drought (124124 De Graaf G, Janssen H. Artificial reproduction and pond rearing of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus in sub-Saharan África – a handbook. Italy: FAO, 1996. 73p.). In fish farming, they can migrate from one tank to another by “crawling” under the ground, thanks to the production of mucus associated with their very resistant pectoral fins. These structures allow individuals to move easily(136136 Donnelly BG. Aspects of behaviour in the catfish Clarias gariepinus (Pisces: Clariidae) during periods of habitat desiccation. In: Arnoldia v. 6, n. 9, p. 1-8, 1973.,127127 Hee NH. Two new species of catfishes of the genus Clarias from Borneo (Teleostei: Clariidae). In: The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, v. 47, p. 17-32, 1999. Singapore: National University of Singapore, 1999. Available from: < https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/app/uploads/2017/06/47rbz017032.pdf>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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). Individuals of this species easily adapt to new environments.
Potential environmental effects
The African catfish is characterized by being extremely tolerant to environmental pressures(136136 Donnelly BG. Aspects of behaviour in the catfish Clarias gariepinus (Pisces: Clariidae) during periods of habitat desiccation. In: Arnoldia v. 6, n. 9, p. 1-8, 1973.). This species has an accessory respiratory organ, pseudolungs (arborescent organs), which allow it to breathe air, ensuring advantages in degraded places with low environmental quality(123123 Burgess WE. An atlas of freshwater and marine catfishes: a preliminary survey of the Siluriformes. Neptune City: T.F.H. Publications, 1989. 784p.). This species has a wide diet(137137 Barbieri E, Mendonça JT, Paes ET. Ocorrência de espécies exóticas na comunidade do Jairé no rio ribeira de Iguape. In: Estudos de Biologia, v. 29, n. 68/69, p. 269-276, jul./dez., 2007. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.7213/reb.v29i68/69.22777>. Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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) and is an efficient predator and strong competitor for the resources consumed by native species. This is one of the most threatening IASs for native fish.
10. Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque, 1818)/Common name: channel catfish
Drawing of Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque, 1818) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
Ictalurus comes from the Greek ichthys = fish + ailouros = cat. The species punctatus means Ictalurus (Greek) = catfish, and punctatus comes from the Latin = stained (referring to the black spots in the body of individuals from this species)(138138 Hassan-Williams C, Bonner TH, Thomas C. Texas freshwater fishes. Texas: Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007.,139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Native distribution
The American catfish (I. punctatus) is a species native to North America that is present in the central channels of the United States, southern Canada, and northeastern Mexico(140140 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO database on introduced aquatic species. Rome: FAO, 1997. Available from: < http://www.fao.org/brasil/pt/>. Accessed in: 12 dez. 2021.
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), with a wide distribution in the Mississippi basin.
Morphology
The body of individuals of this species is olive or black in the upper portion, and the belly is white. They may have dark lateral spots, and old males may be slightly blacker. They have a large head and barbels around the mouth(141141 Garcia JRE. Crescimento do Ictalurus punctatus (rafenesque, 1820) em quatro densidades de estocagem nas condições climáticas do litoral de Santa Catarina - Brasil. 1992. 60 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Aquicultura) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 1992.,142142 Hoppe R. Avaliação de três arranjos de densidade no cultivo de cartfish americano Ictalurus punctatus, no sul do Brasil. 2008. 26 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Aquicultura) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 2008.). The anal fin has 24–30 rays with a rounded shape, the caudal fin is bifurcated, and the species has an adipose fin. These fin shapes help to identify the species compared to other catfish. On the other hand, the longitudinal lateral line begins at the operculum and ends at the beginning of the caudal fin and has a sensory function(143143 Moreira HLML. Vargas RP. Ribeiro, Zimmermann S. Fundamentos da Aquicultura Moderna. ULBRA press, Canoas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. 2001.,144144 Morris JE. Pond culture of channel catfish in the North Central region. North Central Regional Aquaculture Center. Ioma State University, Iowa, United States. n. 444. 1993. Available from <http://circular45orlane.pmd (embrapa.br)> Accessed in 02 de maio de 2023.
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,145145 Wellborn TL. Channel Catfish – life history and biology. [S.l.]: Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, n. 180, 1988.). The maximum recorded weight for this species was 26.3 kg(146146 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque, 1818) 2023. Available from https://www.fishbase.se/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=290⟨=portuguese Accessed in: 05/052023.
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The first introduction record of this species in the country was in 1971. This introduction occurred intentionally for fish farming activity(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). Between 1972 and 1973, SUDEPE and DNOCS introduced the species. Pentecostes, in Ceará, was the pioneer region in studies of the cultivation of the species. The species was cultivated in Irati in Paraná in 1980. This region was identified as the introductory origin for the species in the state(147147 Piedras SR. Manual prático para o cultivo do channel cat- fish (Ictalurus punctatus). Educat press, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. 1990.). Occurrence records are found in Lagoa dos Patos (Rio Grande do Sul), in two dams in Ceará, and in the Guaragaçu River, in Paraná(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,148148 Vitule JRS. Distribuição, abundância e estrutura populacional de peixes introduzidos no Rio Guaraguaçu, Paranaguá, Paraná, Brasil. 143f. 2008. Tese (Doutorado em Zoologia) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, 2008.).
Although the species has been introduced into natural environments in Brazil, its dispersion still seems restricted in some locations, as reported by Cruz-Spindler et al.(149149 Da Cruz SS, Leal ME, Albornoz PCL, Schulz UH. First record of the exotic channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque 1818) (Siluriformes: Ictaluridae) in the Rio dos Sinos basin, RS, Brazil. In: Biota Neotrop. v. 12, n. 3, p. 64-67, 2012. São Paulo: Biota-Fapesp, 2012. Available from <https://doi.org/10.1590/S1676-06032012000300005> Accessed in: 4 jul. 2022.
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). In this study, an individual (female) was captured, and the authors suggested that the introduction occurred by escape from a fish farming station.
Reproduction
Sexual maturity in the species is reached around 2–3 years. The females lay the eggs in holes where they are incubated, and the male protects the place. The temperature of the water determines the period of incubation and development of the eggs(139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Feeding behavior
This species is omnivorous, preferably carnivorous. Its diet comprises fish, mollusks, benthic crustaceans, gastropods, small amphibians, and, secondarily, aquatic vegetation(150150 Goldstein RM, Simon TP. Toward a united definition of guild structure for feeding ecology of North American freshwater fishes. In: SIMON, T. P. (ed.). Assessing the sustainability and biological integrity of water resources using fish communities. Florida: CRC Press, 1999. p. 123-138.,145145 Wellborn TL. Channel Catfish – life history and biology. [S.l.]: Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, n. 180, 1988.).
Behavior
This species has a nocturnal habit(139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.) and has taste buds along the external surface of its body, with a high presence near the four pairs of barbels around the mouth and inside the oropharyngeal cavity(151151 Lee JS. Commercial catfish farming. Danville, Illinois: Interstate, 1991. 330p.). It has large numbers of highly specialized olfactory receptors (inside the pits of its nostrils) that can smell amino acids (taste of L-alanine and L-arginine; L-amino acids) in amounts equivalent to one part per 100 million of water.
Potential environmental effects
In addition to having a range of foods that make up its diet, the American catfish has a very well-developed sense of smell and taste, which ensures its ease in searching for food in waters with high turbidity(142142 Hoppe R. Avaliação de três arranjos de densidade no cultivo de cartfish americano Ictalurus punctatus, no sul do Brasil. 2008. 26 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Aquicultura) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 2008.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). These characteristics indicate that the American catfish, when present in a natural environment, is an excellent competitor, taking significant advantage of native species (152152 Juliano RO, Guerrero III RD, Ronquillo I. The introduction of exotic aquatic species in the Philippines. p. 83-90. In: DE SILVA, S. S. Exotic aquatic organisms in Asia: proceedings of the workshop on introduction of exotic aquatic organisms in Asia. v. 3, 154p. Manila, Philippines: Asian Fisheries Society, 1989.,141141 Garcia JRE. Crescimento do Ictalurus punctatus (rafenesque, 1820) em quatro densidades de estocagem nas condições climáticas do litoral de Santa Catarina - Brasil. 1992. 60 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Aquicultura) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 1992.,148148 Vitule JRS. Distribuição, abundância e estrutura populacional de peixes introduzidos no Rio Guaraguaçu, Paranaguá, Paraná, Brasil. 143f. 2008. Tese (Doutorado em Zoologia) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, 2008.).
11. Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792)/Common name: rainbow trout
Drawing of Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The word Oncorhynchus comes from the Greek onyx, -ychos = nail + rhyngchos = snout. Oncorhynchus means hooked snout. The word mykiss is a vernacular name for the species in Kamchatka, Russia(138138 Hassan-Williams C, Bonner TH, Thomas C. Texas freshwater fishes. Texas: Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007.,139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Native distribution
This species is native to North America (United States and Canada), in waters that drain into the Pacific Ocean(139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Morphology
The color of this species varies according to the age, environment, and sexual condition of the individuals (during the reproductive period, the male has a more attractive color). Specimens from rivers are darker compared to lakes(153153 Spillman CJ. Faune de France: poissons d'eau douce. v. 65. Tome, Paris: Fédération Française des Sociétés Naturelles, 1961. 303 p.). The dorsal fins have 10–12 rays and 3–4 spines, while in the anal fin, the number of rays varies between eight to 12 and three to four spines, and the caudal fin has 19 rays without spines(154154 Sartorio A. Tropical adaptation of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In: Aliens newsletter of invasive species specialist group, v. 17, p. 30-31, 2003.,6868 Kottelat M, Freyhof J. Handbook of european freshwater fishes. Berlin: Maurice Kottelat, 2007. 646p. Available from: <https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 3 jan. 2021.
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,111111 Bardach JE, Ruther JH, McLarney WO. Aquaculture: the farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine organisms. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972. 868 p. Available from: < https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19731405790> Accessed in: 12 dez. 2021.
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). The maximum recorded weight for this species was 25.4 kg(155155 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum , 1792) truta arcoíris. Available from < https://www.fishbase.se/summary/oncorhynchus-mykiss.html. Acessado em 08/05/2023
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The first report of introduction of this species in the country is from 1913, in Serra da Mantiqueira, in Minas Gerais. There are also reports of its introduction by business people in Rio de Janeiro, who acquired embryonated eggs from Europe, resulting in 150 fingerlings released into the rivers of Alto da Boa Vista(156156 Magalhães ALB, Andrade RF, Ratton TF, Brito MFG. Ocorrência da truta arco-íris Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) (Pisces: Salmonidae) no alto rio Aiuruóca e tributários, bacia do rio Grande, Minas Gerais, Brasil. In: Boletim do Museu de Biologia Mello Leitão, v. 14, p. 35-42, 2002.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). In 1949, fingerlings escaped the Jacu Pintado and Bonito rivers in São Paulo, in the Serra da Bocaina region, through the Division of the Institute of Hunting and Fishing of the Ministry of Agriculture. This introduction explored its reasonable market value (gastronomic) and promoted sport fishing. In 1950, this species released many fingerlings in the rivers of Serra da Bocaina. In 1951, the ability of the species to survive and reproduce in high-altitude rivers in the country was verified. Since then, the species has been introduced into several rivers in national territory. In the 1970s, the species was implanted in Campos do Jordão, the first commercial trout farm in Brazil(157157 Sozinski LTW. Introdução da truta arco-íris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) e suas consequências para a comunidade aquática dos rios de altitude do Sul do Brasil. 2004. Tese (Doutorado) - Universidade Federal de Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, 2004.).
Trout was initially introduced into rivers with the justification of being a fish that performs well in the fish market and because it is a species that would attract sport fishing. Today, it is farmed both in natural and artificial environments. Regarding its presence in nature, there are records of occurrence in the Serra Gaúchas, Serra da Mantiqueira, Serra do Itatiaia, Serra da Bocaina, and Serra dos Órgãos. Its presence is related to first-order watercourses, with good oxygenation, low temperature, and flowing water(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,156156 Magalhães ALB, Andrade RF, Ratton TF, Brito MFG. Ocorrência da truta arco-íris Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) (Pisces: Salmonidae) no alto rio Aiuruóca e tributários, bacia do rio Grande, Minas Gerais, Brasil. In: Boletim do Museu de Biologia Mello Leitão, v. 14, p. 35-42, 2002.,157157 Sozinski LTW. Introdução da truta arco-íris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) e suas consequências para a comunidade aquática dos rios de altitude do Sul do Brasil. 2004. Tese (Doutorado) - Universidade Federal de Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, 2004.).
Reproduction
Sexual maturation in males occurs at two years of age and in females at three years. The reproduction of rainbow trout takes place preferably in winter, with the highest concentration being from May to August. This period is marked by short days and lower water temperatures (on average 10ºC), providing ideal reproductive conditions(138138 Hassan-Williams C, Bonner TH, Thomas C. Texas freshwater fishes. Texas: Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007.,139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Feeding behavior
This species is carnivorous and consumes various types of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates (e.g., insects, mollusks, crustaceans) and small fish, among others(156156 Magalhães ALB, Andrade RF, Ratton TF, Brito MFG. Ocorrência da truta arco-íris Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) (Pisces: Salmonidae) no alto rio Aiuruóca e tributários, bacia do rio Grande, Minas Gerais, Brasil. In: Boletim do Museu de Biologia Mello Leitão, v. 14, p. 35-42, 2002.).
Behavior
The species inhabits rivers with crystalline, cold, pure, and well-oxygenated waters, characteristic of higher altitude regions. For reproduction, the female excavates the nest using body undulations to open it. The nest is made in running water with a gravel bottom or shallow, low-temperature water with good oxygenation. After fertilization (the female releases the oocyte, and the male releases the sperm), the male takes care of the surroundings(6868 Kottelat M, Freyhof J. Handbook of european freshwater fishes. Berlin: Maurice Kottelat, 2007. 646p. Available from: <https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/search.php>. Accessed in: 3 jan. 2021.
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,138138 Hassan-Williams C, Bonner TH, Thomas C. Texas freshwater fishes. Texas: Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007.,139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Potential environmental effects
Trout is a carnivorous species at the top of the food chain. Its introduction into natural environments is hazardous to native ichthyofauna. One study demonstrated the impact of introducing trout in high-altitude streams in the south of the country. Its presence caused a decrease in species richness and abundance of native fish in places such as the Silveira River basin in the municipality of São José dos Ausentes, in Rio Grande do Sul. Thus, it is suggested that its occurrence leads to a decrease in habitat and competition for resources on the part of the species(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,156156 Magalhães ALB, Andrade RF, Ratton TF, Brito MFG. Ocorrência da truta arco-íris Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) (Pisces: Salmonidae) no alto rio Aiuruóca e tributários, bacia do rio Grande, Minas Gerais, Brasil. In: Boletim do Museu de Biologia Mello Leitão, v. 14, p. 35-42, 2002.,157157 Sozinski LTW. Introdução da truta arco-íris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) e suas consequências para a comunidade aquática dos rios de altitude do Sul do Brasil. 2004. Tese (Doutorado) - Universidade Federal de Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, 2004.). Other expected impacts of introducing this species in nature are related to the reduction of local genetic variability and medium- and long-term effects in the decrease in immunity of native fauna, among others(154154 Sartorio A. Tropical adaptation of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In: Aliens newsletter of invasive species specialist group, v. 17, p. 30-31, 2003.).
12. Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802)/Common name: black bass
Drawing of Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) and its taxonomic classification. Illustration by Lucas R. F. Santos.
Etymology
The name Micropterus comes from the Greek micros = small + pteron = wing, fin. The word salmoides is a reference to trouts and salmons(139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Native distribution
This species is native to North America, occurring in southern Canada and the northern United States (in the Hudson Bay and Mississippi River, Atlantic drainages from North Carolina to Florida), as well as northern Mexico(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,158158 Schulz UH, Leal ME. Growth and mortality of black bass, Micropterus salmoides (Pisces, Centrachidae; Lacapède, 1802) in a reservoir in southern Brazil. In: Brazil Journal Biology, v. 65, n. 2, p. 363-369, 2005.).
Morphology
The color of this species is quite varied, with olive green on the back and a black stripe on the side. This species exhibits tones between very light yellow and white in the lower region. It has a large mouth with a jaw in front of the eyes. It has 10 spines and 12–14 rays on the dorsal fin, three spines and 10 to 12 rays on the anal fin, and 17 rays on the caudal fin(159159 Gratwicke B, Marshall BE. The relationship between the exotic predators Micropterus salmoides and Serranochromis robustus and native stream fishes in Zimbabwe. In: Journal of Fish Biology, v. 58, n. 1, p. 68-75, 2005. UK: FSBI, 2001. Disponpivel em: <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb00499.x>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001...
,139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.,153153 Spillman CJ. Faune de France: poissons d'eau douce. v. 65. Tome, Paris: Fédération Française des Sociétés Naturelles, 1961. 303 p.). The highest recorded weight was 10.1 kg(160160 Froese R, Pauly D. FishBase: world wide web electronic publication. Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) Largemouth black bass. Available from < https://fishbase.se/summary/Micropterus-salmoides.html. Acessado em 08/05/2023
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).
First occurrences, introduction history, and distribution in Brazil
The first introduction record of the species in Brazil dates back to 1922, in the municipality of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais(161161 Godoy MP. Observações sobre a adaptação do Black Bass em Pirassununga, Estado de São Paulo. In: Revista Brasileira de Biologia, v. 14, p. 32-38, 1954.). The species was brought to fish farming activity in the country. However, sport fishing is also a significant factor in its dispersion in the sites of occurrence(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
This species is considered cosmopolitan and is present practically on all continents. Several reports of environmental impacts related to the introduction of this species in natural environments in many countries occurred in at least 78 countries(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.,139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.,153153 Spillman CJ. Faune de France: poissons d'eau douce. v. 65. Tome, Paris: Fédération Française des Sociétés Naturelles, 1961. 303 p.). In Brazil, records are found in São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Santa Catarina, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and the Federal District(161161 Godoy MP. Observações sobre a adaptação do Black Bass em Pirassununga, Estado de São Paulo. In: Revista Brasileira de Biologia, v. 14, p. 32-38, 1954.,162162 Garcia DAZ, Costa A, Leme G, Orsi ML. Biology of black bas Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) fifty years after the introduction in a smal drainage of the Uper Paraná River basin, Brazil. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity. v. 15, n. 2, p. 180-185. 2014. Available from: <DOI: http://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d150209.2014.> Accessed in 05/05/2023.
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). Perhaps because it is a species with specific environmental requirements, it has not yet been recorded in other states.
Reproduction
Reproduction in this species occurs in three phases: pre-spawning, spawning, and post-spawning. In the pre-spawning and spawning seasons, capturing the species is easier. However, its capture is more difficult in the post-spawning period. This species is oviparous. The male becomes very aggressive during the breeding season. It builds its nest on muddy bottoms and relatively shallow water(163163 Billard R. Les poissons d'eau douce des rivières de France. Identification, inventaire et répartition des 83 espèces. Lausanne: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1997. 192p.,139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.). The same female can visit several nests and mate with several males. The male takes care of and ventilates the fertilized eggs for about 29 days. The birth of the fry occurs between spring and summer when the water temperature is around 15ºC. In fish farms, reproduction can occur from one year of age. However, it is more common after two years. In breeding ponds, they reproduce naturally without human intervention. No apparent sexual dimorphism between males and females has been reported(164164 Gross MR, Sargent RC. The evolution of male and female parental care in fishes. In: American Zoologist, v. 25, n. 3, p. 807-822, 1985. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/25.3.807>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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,161161 Godoy MP. Observações sobre a adaptação do Black Bass em Pirassununga, Estado de São Paulo. In: Revista Brasileira de Biologia, v. 14, p. 32-38, 1954.,158158 Schulz UH, Leal ME. Growth and mortality of black bass, Micropterus salmoides (Pisces, Centrachidae; Lacapède, 1802) in a reservoir in southern Brazil. In: Brazil Journal Biology, v. 65, n. 2, p. 363-369, 2005.,1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.).
Feeding behavior
This species has carnivorous feeding behavior, preferably on small fish, insects, larvae, frogs, and other beings. The species is considered a voracious predator, agile, and aggressive in capturing food(165165 Aloo PA, Dadzie S. Diet of largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lacepéde) in Lake Naivasha, Kenya. In: Fisheries Management and Ecology, v. 2, 1995. p. 43-51. Available from: <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2400.1995.tb00097.x>. Accessed in: mar. 2021.
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,166166 García-Berthou EG. Ontogenetic diet shifts and interrupted piscivory in introduced largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). In: Internat. Rev. Hydrobiol., v. 87, n. 4, p. 353-363, 2002. Available from: <https://invasiber.org/GarciaBerthou/docs/papers/IRH%2087,%20353-363.pdf>. Accessed in: 5 jul. 2022.
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).
Behavior
This species is very active in food searches and has little selectivity. The male is territorial and protects the nest, eggs, and fry in the first weeks of life, performing parental care(139139 Page LM, Burr BM. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011. 663p.).
Potential environmental effects
As this species is at the top of the chain, its arrival in natural environments has the potential to cause several impacts, possibly preying on various fish or organisms (with ample options in the diet) that fit in its mouth(1717 Latini AO, Resende DC, Pombo VB, Coradin L. Espécies exóticas invasoras de águas continentais no Brasil. Série biodiversidade 39. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2016. 791 p.). The black bass is among the 100 worst invasive species in the world(4343 Lowe, S. et al. 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species: a selection from the global invasive species database. [S.l.]: IUCN, 2000.,162162 Garcia DAZ, Costa A, Leme G, Orsi ML. Biology of black bas Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) fifty years after the introduction in a smal drainage of the Uper Paraná River basin, Brazil. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity. v. 15, n. 2, p. 180-185. 2014. Available from: <DOI: http://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d150209.2014.> Accessed in 05/05/2023.
http://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d150209.2...
), usually occurring in lakes, hydroelectric reservoirs, and dams.
4. Concluding Remarks
This material was intended to disseminate information as a booklet for the scientific and non-scientific community, seeking to reach breeders, fishermen, riverside dwellers, schools, and municipal environmental departments. These agents are of fundamental importance for environmental preservation, conservation of native fish species, and maintenance of their diversity, working consciously and stimulating the environmental education of those involved.
One of the main points shown here involves the changes in Law no. 11.959/09, which provides for the National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Aquaculture, made through Bill 5.989/09. This change removes some restrictions on farming exotic fish species and those with invasive attributes. Another point is Decree no. 10.576/2020, which makes the cultivation of IASs more flexible in the waters of the Union reservoirs, which poses a significant risk to the local ichthyofauna. In addition to current decision-making processes, such as the ongoing changes in obtaining environmental licenses, which are perceived as a relaxation of the licensing process, there is a potential setback in the application of criteria for assessing environmental impacts. Consequently, exotic species may exploit the vulnerabilities of this new process.
This informative material aims to bring to light the aspects that cause controversy within ecology and conservation, showing that the introduction of invasive exotic fish species can be directly related to actions such as irresponsible releases and ventures that were poorly planned (which allow the escape of fish), in addition to highlighting regulatory setbacks (laws) in the field(55 Agostinho AA, Gomes LC, Pelicice FM. Ecologia e manejo de recursos pesqueiros em reservatórios do Brasil. Maringá: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Maringá, 2007. 501p.,2727 Lima D, Pelicice F, Vitule JRS, Agostinho AA Aquicultura, política e meio ambiente no Brasil: novas propostas e velhos equívocos. In: Natureza e Conservação, v. 10, n. 1, p. 88-91, jul. 2012.). Thus, it may serve as an endorsement of good production practices with responsibility and environmental safety.
The impacts of the arrival of invasive exotic species in the environment are felt directly by native species, which may cause a decrease or even the extinction of local species. This is mainly caused by increased competition, proliferation of diseases, and reduction of available resources, among others. Aquaculture is one of the main vectors of these introductions, and the species of international origin presented in this study would not occur in any basin in the country, considering the existing dispersion barriers.
It is concluded that maintaining the balance between food production and the search to reduce the environmental impacts of introducing invasive exotic species can help conserve native species. This challenge goes beyond the terrestrial environment, and due care and proper management in natural aquatic ecosystems are needed. Scientific knowledge and planning of effective public policy actions are necessary, combined with technical guidelines and information dissemination. This disclosure, aimed at the non-academic public, could be an essential tool for preserving native species to raise awareness about the impacts of invasive exotic species on local ecosystems among those responsible for the vectors. Adding management and management, great protection is indicated for fish farms, making them more sustainable (or less impactful) and investing in biosecurity against leaks. For example, the implementation of screens or filters for the effluents generated before releasing them in environments, disinfecting, and sterilizing the tanks (nursery) after the production cycles are measures that will contribute to mitigating cases of leaks and also to controlling the proliferation of diseases in the system(167167 Magalhães ALB et al. All the colors of the world: biotic homogenization-differentiation dynamics of freshwater fish communities on demand of the Brazilian aquarium trade. Hydrobiologia. v. 847. P. 3897-3915. 2020. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-020-04307-w
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-020-043...
).
Supplementary material
(only available in the electronic version) - link will be available after publication
Flyer - A dozen fish: Some exotic invasive species found in Brazilian waters (https://revistas.ufg.br/vet/article/view/74647/40077)
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Publication Dates
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Publication in this collection
22 Sept 2023 -
Date of issue
2023
History
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Received
29 Nov 2022 -
Accepted
06 June 2023 -
Published
04 Aug 2023