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Fatores associados à manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais: revisão sistemática Como citar este artigo: Santana GS, Giugliani ER, Vieira TO, Vieira GO. Factors associated with breastfeeding maintenance for 12 months or more: a systematic review. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2018;94:104-122.

Resumo

Objetivo

Sintetizar as informações sobre os fatores associados à manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais.

Fontes de dados

Foi conduzida revisão sistemática nas bases de dados Pubmed/Medline, Scielo e Lilacs, inclusive artigos publicados em língua portuguesa ou inglesa desde 2004 sobre fatores associados à amamentação por, no mínimo, 12 meses. Excluíram-se artigos de revisão e com delineamento qualitativo. Os fatores foram organizados em quatro níveis de acordo com a proximidade cronológica com o desfecho: distal, intermediário distal, intermediário proximal e proximal; nacionalidade e local/área de residência foram considerados fatores contextuais.

Síntese dos dados

Identificaram-se 1.174 artigos, dos quais 19 foram selecionados para revisão, sete estudos de coorte e 12 transversais. Dos 75 fatores explorados, 39 mostraram-se associados ao desfecho ao menos uma vez. Os fatores com os maiores percentuais de associações com a manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais, considerando o número de vezes que foram testados, foram: filhos terem os pais como cuidadores (100%), algum tipo de exposição materna ao fumo (54%), crianças e/ou pais serem imigrantes/estrangeiros (50%), morar em zona urbana (42,9%), maior idade materna (40%), mãe ser casada (37,5%), maior escolaridade materna (31,3%), maior número de filhos (30,8%) e menor renda familiar (30%).

Conclusões

A manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais está associada a múltiplos fatores, com destaque para os fatores contextuais e os relacionados a algumas características sociodemográficas das mães. As associações diferem em efeito e magnitude entre as diferentes populações estudadas.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE
Revisão; Aleitamento materno; Fatores epidemiológicos

Abstract

Objective

Synthesize the information about the factors associated with maintenance of breastfeeding for 12 months or more.

Data source

A systematic review was conducted in the Pubmed/Medline, Scielo, and Lilacs databases, including articles published in Portuguese or English since 2004 on the factors associated with breastfeeding maintenance for at least 12 months; review articles and those with qualitative design were excluded. The factors were organized into four levels, according to the chronological proximity to the outcome: distal, distal intermediate, proximal intermediate, and proximal; nationality and place/area of residence were considered contextual factors.

Summary of data

1174 articles were identified, of which 19 were included in this review, comprising seven cohort studies and 12 cross-sectional studies. A total of 39 of the 75 assessed factors were associated with the outcome at least once. The factors with the highest percentages of associations with maintenance of breastfeeding for 12 months or more, considering the number of times they were tested were: children whose parents are the caregivers (100%), none type of maternal exposure to smoke (54%), children and/or parents are immigrants/foreigners (50%), live in urban areas (42.9%), older maternal age (40%), married women (37.5%), higher level of maternal education (31.3%), greater parity (30.8%), and lower income (30%).

Conclusions

The maintenance of breastfeeding for 12 months or more is associated with multiple factors, emphasizing the contextual factors and those related to some maternal sociodemographic characteristics. Associations differ in effect and magnitude between the different populations studied.

KEYWORDS
Review; Breast feeding; Epidemiologic factors

Introdução

A Organização Mundial de Saúde recomenda aleitamento materno (AM) continuado por dois anos ou mais, 11. World Health Organization. Infant and young child feeding: model chapter for textbooks for medical students and allied health professionals. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009. com base no impacto positivo que a amamentação tem na saúde da criança e da mulher que amamenta, além do impacto econômico. 22 Rollins NC, Bhandari N, Hajeebhoy N, Horton S, Lutter CK, Martines JC, et al. Why invest, and what it will take to improve breastfeeding practices?. Lancet. 2016;387:491-504.,33 Victora CG, Horta BL, de Mola CL, Quevedo L, Pinheiro RT, Gigante DP, et al. Association between breastfeeding and intelligence, educational attainment, and income at 30 years of age: a prospective birth cohort study from Brazil. Lancet Glob Health. 2015;3:e199-205. Evidências científicas comprovam o efeito dose-resposta da amamentação, sobretudo contra a morbimortalidade por doenças infecciosas 44 Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJ, França GV, Horton S, Krasevec J, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet. 2016;387:475-90.,55 Sankar MJ, Sinha B, Chowdhury R, Bhandari N, Taneja S, Martines J, et al. Optimal breastfeeding practices and infant and child mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr. 2015;104:3-13. e sobrepeso e obesidade, 66 Horta BL, Loret de Mola C, Victora CG. Long-term consequences of breastfeeding on cholesterol, obesity, systolic blood pressure and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr. 2015;104:30-7.

7 Liese AD, Hirsch T, von Mutius E, Keil U, Leupold W, Weiland SK. Inverse association of overweight and breast feeding in 9-10-year-old children in Germany. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25:1644-50.

8 Fallahzadeh H, Golestan M, Rezvanian T, Ghasemian Z. Breast-feeding history and overweight in 11-13-year-old children in Iran. World J Pediatr. 2009;5:36-41.
-99 Harder T, Bergmann R, Kallischnigg G, Plagemann A. Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight: a meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;162:397-403. e a favor do desenvolvimento orofacial 1010 Peres KG, Cascaes AM, Nascimento GG, Victora CG. Effect of breastfeeding on malocclusions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr. 2015;104:54-61.,1111 Pires SC, Giugliani ER, Caramez da Silva F. Influence of the duration of breastfeeding on quality of muscle function during mastication in preschoolers: a cohort study. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:934. e quociente de inteligência. 33 Victora CG, Horta BL, de Mola CL, Quevedo L, Pinheiro RT, Gigante DP, et al. Association between breastfeeding and intelligence, educational attainment, and income at 30 years of age: a prospective birth cohort study from Brazil. Lancet Glob Health. 2015;3:e199-205.,1212 Hoefer C, Hardy MC. Later development of breast fed and artificially fed infants: comparison of physical and mental growth. J Am Med Assoc. 1929;92:615-9.

13 Horta BL, Loret de Mola C, Victora CG. Breastfeeding and intelligence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr Oslo Nor. 2015;104:14-9.
-1414 Belfort MB, Rifas-Shiman SL, Kleinman KP, Guthrie LB, Bellinger DC, Taveras EM, et al. Infant feeding and childhood cognition at ages 3 and 7 years: effects of breastfeeding duration and exclusivity. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167:836-44.

Apesar da recomendação da Organização Mundial de Saúde, a manutenção do aleitamento materno além do primeiro ano de vida da criança é praticada por poucas mulheres, é mais comum nos países de baixa renda, onde a prevalência de AM aos 12 meses e 24 meses é maior do que 90% e 60%, respectivamente.44 Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJ, França GV, Horton S, Krasevec J, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet. 2016;387:475-90. Na maioria das populações de alta renda, essa prevalência é inferior a 20%, com diferenças importantes entre os países, a exemplo da Noruega (38%), dos Estados Unidos (27%), da Suécia (16%) e da Inglaterra (< 1%). 44 Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJ, França GV, Horton S, Krasevec J, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet. 2016;387:475-90. No Brasil, apesar do expressivo avanço nos indicadores de AM, a partir da década de 1980, menos da metade das crianças entre 12 e 14 meses e em torno de 1/3 das com 21 a 23 meses é amamentada. 1515 Ministério da Saúde. Pesquisa Nacional de Demografia e Saúde da Criança e da Mulher - PNDS 2006: dimensões do processo reprodutivo e da saúde da criança. Brasília: Ministério da Saúde; 2009. Available from: http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoes/pnds crianca mulher.pdf [cited 08.04.17].
http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoe...
,1616 Boccolini CS, Boccolini P, Giugliani ERJ, Venâncio S, Monteiro F. Tendência de indicadores do aleitamento materno no Brasil em três décadas. Rev Saude Publ. No prelo; 2017.

Têm sido bastante explorados os determinantes do desmame precoce. 1717 Wijndaele K, Lakshman R, Landsbaugh JR, Ong KK, Ogilvie D. Determinants of early weaning and use of unmodified cow's milk in infants: a systematic review. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2009;109:2017-28.

18 Garcia AH, Voortman T, Baena CP, Chowdhurry R, Muka T, Jaspers L, et al. Maternal weight status, diet, and supplement use as determinants of breastfeeding and complementary feeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2016;74:490-516.
-1919 Turcksin R, Bel S, Galjaard S, Devlieger R. Maternal obesity and breastfeeding intention, initiation, intensity and duration: a systematic review. Matern Child Nutr. 2014;10:166-83. No entanto, pouco se sabe sobre os fatores associados à amamentação continuada para além dos 12 meses. Um estudo brasileiro constatou que, diferentemente do que é relatado para o desmame precoce, em que a presença do pai da criança no lar foi fator de proteção do AM, 2020 Quinlan RJ, Quinlan MB, Flinn MV. Parental investment and age at weaning in a Caribbean village. Evol Hum Behav. 2003;24:1-16.,2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95. a coabitação com marido/companheiro foi fator de risco para a manutenção da amamentação por dois anos ou mais. 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73. Essa discrepância levanta a suspeita de que alguns fatores envolvidos na continuidade da amamentação por um período maior diferem daqueles associados ao desmame precoce. A presente revisão tem como objetivo reunir as evidências disponíveis para ampliar o conhecimento acerca dos fatores envolvidos na manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais, organizar os fatores hierarquicamente, de acordo com a sua proximidade com o desfecho. Os resultados aqui apresentados podem nortear futuras investigações sobre o AM continuado, além de auxiliar no estabelecimento de medidas que favoreçam a maior duração da amamentação.

Metodologia

Revisão sistemática em que foi usado protocolo pré-estabelecido para busca, seleção e coleta de dados, adaptado às recomendações da diretriz Preferred Reporting Items for Sistematic Reviews (Prisma) para estudos de metanálise e revisão sistemática. 2323 Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2009;151:264-9. Como são poucos os estudos que abordam a continuidade da amamentação por dois anos ou mais, optou-se por estudar essa prática por 12 meses ou mais.

Foram consultadas as bases de dados Pubmed/Medline, Scielo e Lilacs, usaram-se os seguintes termos de pesquisa, com base nos Descritores em Ciências e Saúde e Medical Subject Headings (MeSH): aleitamento materno, amamentação, breast feeding, breast milk, human milk, duração, duration, 12 meses, 12 months, 24 meses, 24 months, primeiro ano, first year, segundo ano, second year, prolong*/$, sustain*/$, exten*/$, continu*/$, long-t*/$, factor*/$, determ*/$ e predict*/$. Os termos foram combinados através dos operadores booleanos AND, NOT e AND NOT; os símbolos (*) e ($) foram usados para complementar as palavras pesquisadas de acordo com o seu radical, variaram de acordo com a base de dados usada. Os termos revisão, review, gestantes, pregnant woman, pregnancy, gestation, desnutrição, malnutrition foram incorporados aos termos de busca com o objetivo de facilitar a exclusão de publicações que não preenchiam os critérios para a presente revisão.

Foram selecionados artigos que abordam fatores associados à amamentação, que tiveram como desfecho a continuidade do AM por, no mínimo, 12 meses, publicados entre janeiro de 2004 e março de 2016 e escritos no idioma português ou inglês. Não houve restrições quanto ao local do estudo, tipo de população, delineamento e à qualidade do estudo. Foram excluídos artigos de revisão (sistemática ou não) e estudos qualitativos.

Dois revisores independentes fizeram as buscas e avaliaram os artigos a partir da leitura de seus títulos, resumos e do artigo completo quando considerado potencialmente elegível. A inclusão dos artigos e a extração dos dados foram feitas também de forma independente, os resultados foram comparados e as discordâncias solucionadas por consenso entre os dois revisores. Em caso de não concordância entre os pares, um terceiro revisor foi consultado.

A qualidade das evidências foi avaliada segundo critérios adaptados de Parry et al. e Taylor et al. 2424 Parry LL, Netuveli G, Parry J, Saxena S. A systematic review of parental perception of overweight status in children. J Ambul Care Manag. 2008;31:253-68.,2525 Taylor BJ, Dempster M, Donnelly M. Grading gems: appraising the quality of research for social work and social care. Br J Soc Work. 2007;37:335-54. Tais critérios levam em consideração: tipo de estudo (validade interna), resumo estruturado, introdução com embasamento científico e explicação lógica, método de recrutamento da população, seleção de amostragem pré-definida, informação sobre os instrumentos de coleta de dados, informação sobre a taxa de não resposta, treinamento dos entrevistadores, método de medida de resultados claramente definidos, análise estatística, interpretação dos resultados, hipótese do estudo e possíveis vieses considerados, interpretação dos resultados no contexto das evidências atuais e generalização. A pontuação máxima possível, segundo esse critério, é de 30.

Uma vez identificados os fatores testados para a associação com a manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais, eles foram organizados segundo modelo teórico hierarquizado proposto por Boccolini et al., 2626 Boccolini CS, de Carvalho ML, de Oliveira MIC. Factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months of life in Brazil: a systematic review. Rev Saude Publ; 2015. p. 49, pii:S0034-89102015000100409. disposto em quatro níveis de acordo com a proximidade cronológica das variáveis com o desfecho. O nível 1 ou distal agrupou as características anteriores à gestação: socioeconômicas e demográficas maternas, familiares e/ou domiciliares; o nível 2 ou intermediário distal reuniu a atenção pré-natal e eventos ocorridos durante a gestação; o nível 3 ou intermediário proximal compreendeu as características da atenção ao parto, pós-parto imediato e do recém-nascido, além de eventos ocorridos entre o parto e a alta hospitalar; e o nível 4 ou proximal agregou as características das mulheres e dos lactentes referentes às variáveis ocorridas após a alta hospitalar, inclusive a alimentação da criança. As variáveis que se referiam à nacionalidade, local de residência (região, município, distrito, bairro) e área de residência (urbana/rural, favela/não favela, interior/capital) foram classificadas como fatores contextuais, ou seja, características relativas ao contexto social, econômico e demográfico, compartilhadas pelas nutrizes, e que podem influenciar na duração do AM. 2626 Boccolini CS, de Carvalho ML, de Oliveira MIC. Factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months of life in Brazil: a systematic review. Rev Saude Publ; 2015. p. 49, pii:S0034-89102015000100409.

Resultados

Foram identificados 1.174 artigos potencialmente relevantes para a revisão (Medline n = 833, Lilacs n = 161, Scielo n = 177 e três buscados manualmente, ou seja, identificados por meio da lista de citações de artigos de publicações captadas pela busca nas bases de dados), dos quais 272 foram selecionados para a leitura dos resumos. Após a leitura desses, foram selecionados 95 artigos para a leitura na íntegra; entre esses, 19 preenchiam os critérios de inclusão e foram selecionados para fazer parte da revisão. A figura 1 apresenta o fluxo de inclusão e exclusão dos artigos e o tabela 1 sintetiza as principais características e resultados dos 19 estudos.

Figura 1
Diagrama de fluxo de inclusão e exclusão de estudos para a revisão sistemática sobre fatores associados à manutenção da amamentação por ≥ 12 meses. 1212 Hoefer C, Hardy MC. Later development of breast fed and artificially fed infants: comparison of physical and mental growth. J Am Med Assoc. 1929;92:615-9.

Tabela 1
Características principais dos estudos selecionados para a revisão sistemática sobre fatores associados à manutenção da amamentação por ≥ 12 meses por ordem decrescente de ano de publicação

Foram localizados quatro estudos oriundos do Brasil, 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.

28 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.
-2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14. três dos Estados Unidos, 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7. dois da Noruega, 3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503. dois da Itália 3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.,3535 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82. e um em cada um dos seguintes países: Sri Lanka, 3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29. Suécia, 3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804. Catar, 3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43. Haiti,3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13. Austrália, 4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409. Irã, 4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13. Turquia4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. e Timor Leste, 4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. Sete foram estudos de coorte 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.,3535 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409. e 12 eram transversais 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.,3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.

37 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.

38 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.
-3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. dentre os 19 selecionados. A pontuação que expressou a qualidade da publicação variou de 13 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40. a 26. 3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.

Foram testados 75 fatores para a associação com a manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais (fig. 2). O número de associações de uma mesma variável com o desfecho pode ser superior ao número de estudos que a investigaram, pois alguns autores categorizaram a mesma variável em mais do que duas categorias ou a avaliaram sob aspectos diferentes. Yalçin et al., 4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. por exemplo, investigaram a exposição materna ativa ao tabaco e também a exposição ao fumo passivo.

Figura 2
Modelo teórico hierarquizado das variáveis avaliadas para possível associação com a manutenção da amamentação por ≥ 12 meses.

a Variável (número de avaliações da associação com o desfecho/número de associações com o desfecho).


O nível hierárquico submetido a mais avaliações foi o distal (20 variáveis e 93 avaliações), seguido pelo proximal (23 variáveis e 73 avaliações), intermediário proximal (20 variáveis e 52 avaliações) e intermediário distal (nove variáveis e 16 avaliações). Os fatores contextuais, apesar de englobar apenas três variáveis, foram avaliados 22 vezes.

Os fatores mais frequentemente explorados foram: escolaridade 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.

33 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.

34 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.

35 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.
-3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.

39 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.

40 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.

41 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. e idade materna; 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.

28 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.
-2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.
-3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3535 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.

39 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.

40 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.

41 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. paridade, 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.

31 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.
-3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.

35 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.
-3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.

39 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.

40 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.

41 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. trabalho materno 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.

35 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.
-3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.,3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. e região de residência; 2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.

31 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.
-3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.

40 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.

41 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. sexo da criança 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.,3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. e exposição materna ao tabaco; 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.

33 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.
-3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.,3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. renda familiar; 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.

29 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.

30 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.
-3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.

37 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.

38 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.
-3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. tipo de parto 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.

35 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.

36 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.

37 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.
-3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. e estado civil materno. 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3535 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409. O número de avaliações dos fatores explorados está demonstrado na figura 2.

Mostraram-se associadas ao desfecho ao menos uma vez 39 variáveis, as mais frequentes foram: maior idade materna 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.
-3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. e algum tipo de exposição materna ao tabaco 3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. (seis associações), maior escolaridade materna 3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.
-3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13. (cinco associações) e maior número de filhos 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13. (quatro associações). A figura 2 apresenta o número de vezes em que cada variável se associou ao desfecho.

Os fatores com os maiores percentuais de associações com a manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais, considerando o número de vezes em que foram testados, foram: filhos terem os pais como cuidadores (100%), algum tipo de exposição da mãe ao tabaco (54,5%), crianças e/ou pais serem imigrantes/estrangeiros (50%), morar em zona urbana (42,9%), maior idade materna (40%), mãe ser casada (37,5%), maior escolaridade materna (31,3%), maior número de filhos (30,8%) e menor renda familiar (30%).

Discussão

O conhecimento dos fatores associados à continuidade da amamentação por, no mínimo, 12 meses pode auxiliar no planejamento de ações de saúde que visem a aumentar a proporção de mulheres que amamentam segundo a recomendação internacional de dois anos ou mais. A presente revisão sistemática identificou 39 variáveis associadas à manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais em pelo menos um estudo.

Diversos fatores agrupados no nível distal, tais como maior idade e escolaridade materna, mãe ser casada, maior número de filhos e menor renda familiar, mostraram alto percentual de associações com a manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais, considerando o número de vezes em que foram testados. Esse achado demonstra que o prolongamento da amamentação sofre importante interferência das características socioeconômicas e demográficas. Diferentemente, quando se estuda a exclusividade da amamentação nos primeiros seis meses de vida, os fatores mais próximos do desfecho são os que mais frequentemente se associam com essa prática, a exemplo de trabalho materno, aconselhamento pré e pós-parto, conhecimento materno sobre amamentação e tipo de parto. 2626 Boccolini CS, de Carvalho ML, de Oliveira MIC. Factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months of life in Brazil: a systematic review. Rev Saude Publ; 2015. p. 49, pii:S0034-89102015000100409.,4444 Shifraw T, Worku A, Berhane Y. Factors associated exclusive breastfeeding practices of urban women in Addis Ababa public health centers, Ethiopia: a cross sectional study. Int Breastfeed J. 2015;10:22.,4545 Mekuria G, Edris M. Exclusive breastfeeding and associated factors among mothers in Debre Markos, Northwest Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. Int Breastfeed J. 2015;10:1.

Foram constatadas seis associações entre maior idade materna e a continuidade da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais. Esse resultado pode ser atribuído à maior estabilidade emocional e experiência adquiridas com filhos anteriores, que permitem à mulher lidar com eventuais intercorrências durante a gestação, o parto e o puerpério. 4646 Faleiros FT, Trezza EM, Carandina L. Aleitamento materno: fatores de influência na sua decisão e duração. Rev Nutr. 2006;19:623-30.,4747 Queiros P de S, de Oliveira LR, Martins CL. Elementos que interferem na amamentação exclusiva: percepções de nutrizes, vol. 13. Rev Salud Pública; 2009. p. 6-14.

O maior número de filhos favoreceu a prática do AM continuado. 3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13. Assim como a idade materna, a paridade pode estar relacionada com maior experiência da mulher em vários aspectos que podem interferir positivamente no AM. 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.

Seis dos 16 estudos que exploraram a associação entre escolaridade materna e duração da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais encontraram tal associação. 3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.
-3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. Esses estudos, em sua maioria provenientes de países de alta renda, constataram que maior nível de instrução da mãe 3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.
-3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13. estava associado positivamente com maior duração do AM, exceto estudo conduzido em Timor Leste, que encontrou associação de menor escolaridade e manutenção da amamentação. 4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. Esse achado vem corroborar dados recentes publicados por Victora et al. 44 Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJ, França GV, Horton S, Krasevec J, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet. 2016;387:475-90. Indicam que em países de alta renda a amamentação é mais comum em mulheres com melhor nível socioeconômico. No Brasil, um país de média renda, uma revisão sistemática encontrou associação entre maior escolaridade materna e prática do AM exclusivo em quase metade dos estudos revisados. 2626 Boccolini CS, de Carvalho ML, de Oliveira MIC. Factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months of life in Brazil: a systematic review. Rev Saude Publ; 2015. p. 49, pii:S0034-89102015000100409.

A associação entre menor renda familiar e manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais foi detectada em três 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. dos dez 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.

29 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.

30 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.
-3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.

37 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.

38 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.
-3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. estudos em que essa variável foi explorada. Ressalta-se que um desses três estudos foi conduzido no Brasil 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40. e os outros em países de alta renda 3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804. (Suécia) e baixa renda (Timor Leste). 4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. Vale lembrar que no estudo da Suécia esse achado pode estar relacionado com o fato de as mulheres que amamentaram por mais tempo serem imigrantes. 3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804. Em países de baixa e média renda, a amamentação é um dos poucos comportamentos positivos relacionados à saúde que é mais frequente na camada mais pobre da população. 44 Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJ, França GV, Horton S, Krasevec J, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet. 2016;387:475-90. É possível que esse achado esteja relacionado com o benefício econômico da amamentação. 22 Rollins NC, Bhandari N, Hajeebhoy N, Horton S, Lutter CK, Martines JC, et al. Why invest, and what it will take to improve breastfeeding practices?. Lancet. 2016;387:491-504.

O estado civil materno teve comportamento diverso quanto à direção da associação. Num mesmo estudo, ser mãe solteira foi fator de proteção para AM aos 12 meses ou mais e fator de risco aos dois anos ou mais. 4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409. Novos estudos são necessários para melhor compreensão de uma possível influência ambivalente do companheiro/pai da criança na duração do AM.

A experiência prévia com amamentação, 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40. presença de alergia/asma em pais e parentes de crianças, 3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503. fazer consultas pré-natais2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50. e mãe ter intenção de amamentar durante a gestação 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95. foram as variáveis do nível intermediário distal descritas como associadas ao desfecho. É de se esperar que fazer consultas pré-natais com orientações sobre AM, ter intenção de amamentar já durante a gestação e ter experiência prévia com amamentação sejam fatores que ajudam as mulheres a enfrentar eventuais dificuldades no AM e, assim, favorecer o prolongamento da amamentação. 4646 Faleiros FT, Trezza EM, Carandina L. Aleitamento materno: fatores de influência na sua decisão e duração. Rev Nutr. 2006;19:623-30.,4848 Wang W, Lau Y, Chow A, Chan KS. Breast-feeding intention, initiation and duration among Hong Kong Chinese women: a prospective longitudinal study. Midwifery. 2014;30:678-87.,4949 Tewabe T, Mandesh A, Gualu T, Alem G, Mekuria G, Zeleke H. Exclusive breastfeeding practice and associated factors among mothers in Motta town, East Gojjam zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia, 2015: a cross-sectional study. Int Breastfeed J. 2016;12:12. A associação entre presença de alergia/asma nos pais e parentes pode ter sua origem na preocupação com a saúde dos filhos, uma vez que, dentre os benefícios de longo prazo da amamentação, está a proteção contra asma e eczema, sobretudo em países de baixa renda. 5050 Lodge CJ, Tan DJ, Lau MX, Dai X, Tham R, Lowe AJ, et al. Breastfeeding and asthma and allergies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr. 2015;104:38-53.

Entre as características do parto e do nascimento, o tipo de parto, apesar de ser um fator avaliado em nove 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.

35 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.

36 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.

37 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.
-3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. dos 19 estudos selecionados, em apenas um o parto vaginal foi fator de proteção para a manutenção do AM por 12 meses ou mais.3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29. Por outro lado, há vários estudos que documentam a associação entre parto cesáreo e desmame precoce. 5151 Saeed G, Fakhar S, Imran T, Abbas LK. The effect of modes of delivery on infants' feeding practices. Iran J Med Sci. 2011;36:128-32.

52 Weiderpass E, Barros FC, Victora CG, Tomasi E, Halpern R. Incidence and duration of breast-feeding by pattern of delivery: a longitudinal study in Southeastern Brazil. Rev Saude Publica. 1998;32:225-31.
-5353 Giugliani ER, do Espírito Santo LC, de Oliveira LD, Aerts D. Intake of water, herbal teas and non-breast milks during the first month of life: associated factors and impact on breastfeeding duration. Early Hum Dev. 2008;84:305-10. Essa aparente discrepância não surpreende, pois parece razoável que a cesariana interfira negativamente no AM no início do processo e não na sua manutenção por tempo prolongado.

Dentre os fatores classificados como proximais, a ausência de exposição materna ao fumo foi a variável individual com o segundo maior número de avaliações (11) 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.

33 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.
-3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.,3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. e de associações (seis). 3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.,4242 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91. Tal associação pode se dever à interferência negativa da nicotina sobre a produção do leite materno 5454 Horta BL, Kramer MS, Platt RW. Maternal smoking and the risk of early weaning: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:304-7. e também pelo perfil da mulher fumante, menos favorável à manutenção do AM por um tempo maior. 3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804.

Três 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. entre 14 avaliações 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14.,3232 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.,3434 Bertino E, Varalda A, Magnetti F, Di Nicola P, Cester E, Occhi L, et al. Is breastfeeding duration influenced by maternal attitude and knowledge? A longitudinal study during the first year of life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25:32-6.

35 Carletti C, Pani P, Knowles A, Monasta L, Montico M, Cattaneo A. Breastfeeding to 24 months of age in the northeast of Italy: a cohort study. Breastfeed Med Off J Acad Breastfeed Med. 2011;6:177-82.
-3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.,3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. que exploraram o trabalho materno mostraram associação entre essa variável e a duração da amamentação. Estudos conduzidos nos Estados Unidos 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95. e no Irã 4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13. constataram que mães que trabalhavam fora do lar tinham menor probabilidade de manter a amamentação por 12 meses ou mais. Já um estudo conduzido no Timor Leste 4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. mostrou o oposto, ou seja, mães que trabalhavam tinham maior probabilidade de amamentar seus filhos aos 12 meses. Essa é uma associação que merece ser investigada, pois é de se esperar que o trabalho materno fora do lar interfira negativamente na manutenção da amamentação pelo suposto afastamento físico entre mãe e criança. É possível que no Timor Leste o trabalho materno seja mais informal, permita que as mulheres levem os seus filhos ao trabalho, favoreça assim a manutenção da amamentação.

Dois 2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73.,2929 dos S Neto ET, Zandonade E, Emmerich AO. Analysis models for variables associated with breastfeeding duration. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31:306-14. dos três estudos que exploraram a associação entre uso de chupeta e manutenção da amamentação descreveram maior duração do AM entre as crianças que não faziam uso desse artefato. Já está bem documentado que o uso de chupeta é um fator fortemente associado ao desmame precoce e à interrupção da amamentação exclusiva. 2626 Boccolini CS, de Carvalho ML, de Oliveira MIC. Factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months of life in Brazil: a systematic review. Rev Saude Publ; 2015. p. 49, pii:S0034-89102015000100409.,5555 Buccini GD, Pérez-Escamilla R, Paulino LM, Araújo CL, Venancio SI. Pacifier use and interruption of exclusive breastfeeding: systematic review and meta-analysis. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13:e12384. Essa revisão mostrou que o uso de chupeta também interfere negativamente com a manutenção do AM por no mínimo 12 meses.

Dois estudos pesquisaram a interferência da coabitação da mãe com o pai da criança sobre a duração do AM. 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73. Já foi relatado que coabitação com o pai da criança é fator de proteção contra desmame precoce. 2020 Quinlan RJ, Quinlan MB, Flinn MV. Parental investment and age at weaning in a Caribbean village. Evol Hum Behav. 2003;24:1-16. No entanto, no estudo conduzido no Brasil, a coabitação da mãe com o companheiro/pai da criança foi fator de risco para a manutenção da amamentação por dois anos ou mais. Essa discrepância faz com que se levante a hipótese de que os pais inicialmente incentivam a amamentação, mas que, após algum tempo, por desconhecimento quanto à recomendação da duração da amamentação por dois anos ou mais ou por outra razão, passem a desestimular a mulher a manter a amamentação.2222 Martins EJ, Giugliani ER. Which women breastfeed for 2 years or more?. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2012;88:67-73. Há relatos de que alguns pais acham que a amamentação prejudica as mamas, interfere na relação entre o pai e a criança, interfere na relação do casal, inclusive nas relações sexuais, causa sentimentos de exclusão, desvalia e ciúmes, entre outras. 5656 Sharma M, Petosa R. Impact of expectant fathers in breast-feeding decisions. J Am Diet Assoc. 1997;97:1311-3. Além disso, a coabitação com o marido/companheiro pode acarretar em maior carga de trabalho para a mulher, sobretudo se ele não divide as tarefas domésticas com ela.

Dentre os fatores classificados contextuais, a associação entre região de residência e amamentação por 12 meses ou mais foi investigada 14 vezes, 2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.

31 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.

32 Kristiansen AL, Lande B, Øverby NC, Andersen LF. Factors associated with exclusive breast-feeding and breast-feeding in Norway. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:2087-96.
-3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,3939 Laterra A, Ayoya MA, Beaulière J-M, Bienfait M, Pachón H. Infant and young child feeding in four departments in Haiti: mixed-method study on prevalence of recommended practices and related attitudes, beliefs, and other determinants. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2014;36:306-13.

40 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409.

41 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.

42 Yalçın SS, Yalçın S, Kurtuluş-Yiğit E. Determinants of continued breastfeeding beyond 12 months in Turkey: secondary data analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56:581-91.
-4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. foram encontradas nove associações. 2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.,3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29.,4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. Em três estudos, 3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3333 Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierød MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, et al. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. dois deles conduzidos em países de alta renda, 3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,4343 Senarath U, Dibley MJ, Agho KE. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors among children under 24 months of age in Timor-Leste. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:387-97. morar em zona urbana/metropolitana foi fator de proteção para a manutenção do AM por 12 meses ou mais. No entanto, em outros três estudos conduzidos no Brasil, 2727 Demétrio F, Pinto EJ, Assis AM. Factors associated with early breastfeeding cessation: a birth cohort study in two municipalities in the Recôncavo region, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2012;28:641-50. Irã 4141 Hajian-Tilaki KO. Factors associated with the pattern of breastfeeding in the north of Iran. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:702-13. e Sri Lanka, 3636 Senarath U, Siriwardena I, Godakandage SS, Jayawickrama H, Fernando DN, Dibley MJ. Determinants of breastfeeding practices: an analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 2006-2007. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:315-29. países de renda média, residir em zona urbana configurou-se como fator de risco para o AM prolongado. Essa discrepância entre os resultados pode ser explicada por diferenças culturais. O fato de três estudos terem observado que ser imigrante favorecia o prolongamento da amamentação 2121 Langellier BA, Pia Chaparro M, Whaley SE. Social and institutional factors that affect breastfeeding duration among WIC participants in Los Angeles County, California. Matern Child Health J. 2012;16:1887-95.,3030 Singh GK, Kogan MD, Dee DL. Nativity/immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration in the United States, 2003. Pediatrics. 2007;119:S38-46.,3737 Wallby T, Hjern A. Region of birth, income and breastfeeding in a Swedish county. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:1799-804. corrobora essa hipótese.

A presente revisão tem o mérito de ser um estudo abrangente, incluiu estudos de diferentes países com distintas abordagens metodológicas, além de ter organizado os fatores descritos na literatura como associados à maior duração do AM em níveis hierarquizados, facilitado o entendimento das características envolvidas na manutenção da amamentação por pelo menos 12 meses.

Por outro lado, a heterogeneidade geográfica dos estudos incluídos na revisão pode ser uma limitação para a aplicabilidade dos seus resultados, pois os fatores de risco ou de proteção da amamentação podem variar conforme as características individuais e ambientais nos diferentes grupos populacionais. As limitações metodológicas de alguns estudos, inclusive o não uso de modelos multivariáveis para a análise dos dados, 2828 Carrascoza KC, Júnior C, Luiz Á, de Moraes ABA. The early weaning and extended breastfeeding influent factors. Estud Psicol Camp. 2005;22:433-40.,3131 Li R, Darling N, Maurice E, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn LM. Breastfeeding rates in the United States by characteristics of the child, mother, or family: the 2002 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e31-7.,3838 Al-Kohji S, Said HA, Selim NA. Breastfeeding practice and determinants among Arab mothers in Qatar. Saudi Med J. 2012;33:436-43.,4040 Hure AJ, Powers JR, Chojenta CL, Byles JE, Loxton D. Poor adherence to national and international breastfeeding duration targets in an Australian longitudinal cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54409. podem também ter prejudicado alguns resultados. Além disso, vários fatores associados à manutenção do AM foram testados em apenas um estudo.

A manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais sofre forte influência dos fatores contextuais e de algumas características sociodemográficas maternas. Fatores relacionados ao acompanhamento pré-natal, ao parto e ao período pós-parto também influenciam no desfecho pesquisado, porém em menor grau. Ficou evidente que os determinantes da manutenção da amamentação por 12 meses ou mais podem diferir entre as populações, bem como a magnitude das associações. Por isso, é preciso conhecer os diversos fatores associados com a amamentação continuada em diferentes contextos socioculturais, para que sejam feitas intervenções nas variáveis modificáveis. Apesar disso, alguns fatores se mostraram associados à manutenção da amamentação em quase todos os locais pesquisados, tais como maior idade, maior número de filhos e maior nível de escolaridade da mãe e uso de chupeta pela criança. Assim, o modelo teórico hierarquizado construído com os resultados desta revisão, que informa os fatores já explorados e os associados com a manutenção do AM, pode nortear futuras investigações que visem a explorar os facilitadores e os obstáculos à amamentação continuada em diferentes contextos.

  • Como citar este artigo: Santana GS, Giugliani ER, Vieira TO, Vieira GO. Factors associated with breastfeeding maintenance for 12 months or more: a systematic review. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2018;94:104-122.

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Datas de Publicação

  • Publicação nesta coleção
    Mar-Apr 2018

Histórico

  • Recebido
    16 Out 2016
  • Aceito
    21 Abr 2017
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