Therapeutic effects of exercise training in patients with pediatric rheumatic diseases

Abstracts

Ao longo das últimas décadas, o papel do exercício em doenças reumatológicas tem sido bastante explorado. Sabe-se, atualmente, que a prática de atividade física promove inúmeros benefícios ao paciente com osteoporose, osteoartrite, lúpus eritematoso sistêmico, esclerose sistêmica, miopatias idiopáticas inflamatórias, fibromialgia e artrite reumatoide. Dessa forma, o exercício físico tem sido considerado ferramenta valiosa no tratamento do paciente reumático. Os efeitos terapêuticos do treinamento físico em doenças reumatológicas pediátricas também têm sido alvos recentes de investigação. Em conjunto, os estudos têm revelado grande potencial terapêutico do exercício para pacientes com artrite idiopática juvenil, lúpus eritematoso sistêmico juvenil, dermatomiosite juvenil, fibromialgia juvenil e outras causas de dor crônica. Esta revisão narrativa tem como objetivos familiarizar o reumatologista pediátrico ao campo da ciência do exercício, discutir os potenciais benefícios do exercício físico na reumatologia pediátrica, com ênfase nas perspectivas desse promissor campo de atuação clínica e científica, e apresentar modelos práticos de exame de pré-participação e contraindicações ao exercício físico.

aptidão física; atividade motora; reumatologia; criança

REVIEW ARTICLE

^IPhD, Professor of the Escola de Educação Física e Esporte, Universidade de São Paulo - USP

^IIAssistant Physician of the Discipline of Rheumatology of the USP; Post-doctorate

^IIIAssistant Physician of the Hospital das Clínicas of the USP; Pediatrician and Sports Medicine Physician

^IVCollaborating Researcher of the Discipline of Rheumatology of the USP; PhD in Physical Education

^VAssistant Physician of the Pediatric Rheumatology Unit, Instituto da Criança of the Medical School of the USP; PhD in Medical Sciences

^VIPost-Graduate Student in Medical Sciences at the Medical School of the USP; Nutritionist

^VIICollaborating Professor of the Pediatric Rheumatology Unit, Instituto da Criança of the Medical School of the USP; Post-doctorate in Pediatrics

Correspondence to

ABSTRACT

Over the past decades, the role of exercise training in rheumatic diseases has been largely explored. Currently, physical activity is well known to benefit patients with osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis, idiopathic inflammatory myopathy, fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis. Therefore, exercise training has been considered a valuable tool for treating rheumatic patients. The therapeutic effects of exercise training have also been investigated in pediatric rheumatic diseases. Collectively, studies have revealed the therapeutic potential of exercise in juvenile idiopathic arthritis, juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus, juvenile dermatomyositis, juvenile fibromyalgia and other causes of chronic pain. The aim of this review is to familiarize the pediatric rheumatologist with the exercise science field; discuss the potential benefits of exercise training in pediatric rheumatic diseases, emphasize both research and clinical perspectives of this promising field; and propose practical models of pre-participation examinations and contraindications to exercise.

Keywords: physical fitness, motor activity, rheumatology, child.

INTRODUCTION

Hippocrates, 2,400 years ago, stated: "That which is used develops; that which is not used wastes away... If there is any deficiency in food or exercise, the body will fall sick". The prophetic words of the "father of Medicine" have gained increasing scientific support. Epidemiological studies have shown that physical inactivity substantially increases the relative incidence of coronary artery disease (45%), acute myocardial infarction (60%), arterial hypertension (30%), colon cancer (41%), breast cancer (31%), type II diabetes mellitus (50%), and osteoporosis (59%).¹ There is evidence that physical inactivity is independently associated with mortality, obesity, higher incidence of falls and physical weakness in the elderly, dyslipidemia, depression, dementia, anxiety, and mood swings.^2-6

In the pediatric population, sedentary lifestyle is also considered the major factor responsible for the pandemic increase in the incidence of juvenile obesity. In addition, recent findings have suggested that physical inactivity worsens the general health status of children and adolescents affected by several diseases, such as cardiovascular, renal, endocrine, neuromuscular, and osteoarticular diseases.⁷

Thus, it is evident that physical exercise practice is an extremely important therapeutic measure, considered the firstchoice treatment in several chronic disorders, such as type II diabetes mellitus and arterial hypertension.

The role played by physical exercise in adults with rheumatic diseases has also been studied. It is currently known that physical activity promotes innumerous benefits to patients with osteoporosis,⁸ osteoarthritis,⁹ systemic lupus erythematosus,¹⁰ systemic sclerosis,¹¹ inflammatory idiopathic myopathies,¹² fibromyalgia,¹³ and rheumatoid arthritis,¹⁴ with rare reports of adverse effects. Thus, physical exercise has been considered a valuable and safe therapeutic tool for treating patients with rheumatic diseases.

The therapeutic effects of physical training on pediatric rheumatic diseases have also been recently investigated.¹⁵ Studies have shown the great therapeutic potential of exercise for patients with juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus (JSLE), juvenile dermatomyositis (JDM), juvenile fibromyalgia (JF), and juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA).^7,15 However, the number of controlled studies with large samples is still limited. In addition, questions such as "What is the best type of training?" or "Does exercise affect the natural course of the disease?" are yet to be properly answered.

This brief review aimed at discussing the potential benefits of physical exercise in pediatric rheumatology, with emphasis on the future of this promising clinical and scientific field. In addition, classical concepts of physical training were introduced aiming at making the pediatric rheumatologist acquainted with the terminology of the exercise science.

CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGIES OF EXERCISE SCIENCE

The following glossary comprises adaptations of the classical definitions of exercise physiology and sports training.¹⁶

Physical activity - Body movement produced by the contraction of the skeletal musculature, which implies energy consumption above baseline levels.

Physical exercise - Planned and structured sequence of movements aimed at enhancing or maintaining a specific physical capacity. Physical exercise is seen in the context of physical activity.

Sports - Cultural phenomenon characterized by competition. Contrary to common sense, sports practice is not always healthy, considering the high incidence of osteomyoarticular lesions in high-level athletes. Thus, the practice of certain sports modalities should be restricted in pediatric patients with chronic disease (to review, see Morris).¹⁷

Physical training - Sequence of exercises organized over a period of time to enhance physical performance.

Physical conditioning - Comprises the concepts of aerobic and neuromuscular conditionings and flexibility.

Aerobic conditioning - Also known as cardiorespiratory conditioning or aerobic endurance. It refers to the capacity of the circulatory and respiratory systems to provide oxygen during a prolonged physical exercise. The most used measure to represent aerobic conditioning is maximum oxygen consumption (VO₂ max), which can be measured by indirect calorimetry or estimated by field tests.

Neuromuscular conditioning - Relates to the individual's maximum capacity of opposing an external resistance (maximum strength) or maintaining the production of submaximal strength for a prolonged period of time (strength endurance).

Flexibility - Refers to the ability to move a joint in an increased range of motion. Stretching exercises are used to enhance flexibility. Good flexibility development is related to promotion and maintenance of functionality.

Aerobic exercise - Exercise performed at submaximal intensity, allowing the maintenance of exertion for prolonged periods (> 10 min). It is characterized by contractions of the same muscular group rhythmically and repeatedly. Examples include swimming, cycling, walking, and medium- and long-duration running. When performed at adequate intensity and frequency, it enhances aerobic conditioning.

Intensity of the aerobic training - The intensity of the aerobic exercise can be prescribed based on a fraction related to the individual's maximal capacity, such as percentage of maximum oxygen consumption (VO₂ max) or percentage of maximal heart rate (HR). The exercise is classically described as moderate when its intensity is adjusted to 40%-60% of VO₂ max (50%-70% of maximal HR), and intense when its intensity is > 60% of VO₂ max (> 70% of maximal HR).

Strength exercise or training - Exercise that uses external resistance (overload) to produce neuromuscular adaptations. The most common examples are weight lifting exercises, popularly known as bodybuilding. Strength exercises can be static (also known as isometric) or dynamic (also known as isotonic). Isometric muscle contractions refer to contractions in which external resistance equals internal strength (produced by muscles), so that no joint movement occurs. Concentric muscle contractions refer to those in which internal strength surpasses external resistance, while eccentric contractions are those in which external resistance surpasses internal strength.

Intensity of strength training - Intensity can be defined as high when external resistance is > 75% of the load that can be "lifted" one single time [> 75% of 1-RM (one repetition maximum)], and moderate when the external resistance is between 50% and 74% of the 1-RM.

Pre-participation examination - It is a medical consultation that includes extensive clinical anamnesis and careful physical examination, including osteoarticular and postural assessment. The objective of this careful examination is to detect any physical change that can contraindicate or limit physical exercise practice. Table 1 shows an example of anamnesis that can be used by the pediatric rheumatologist during a pre-participation examination.

REST OR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: WHAT IS BEST FOR YOUR PATIENT?

Despite the vast body of knowledge indicating that physical exercise can prevent and treat most chronic diseases, while a sedentary lifestyle is the major risk factor predisposing to chronic diseases, patients with rheumatic diseases are often recommended to rest, as a way to prevent disease activity or joint wear and tear.¹² The efficacy of this recommendation has been challenged. There is evidence that patients with rheumatoid arthritis participating in regular physical exercise programs have less frequent joint pain and stiffness and better performance in daily life activities as compared with their physically inactive peers.¹⁸

In past decades, children and adolescents have become increasingly sedentary. Concomitantly, a substantial increase in the incidence of pediatric chronic diseases, such as juvenile obesity, arterial hypertension, type II diabetes mellitus, and asthma, has been observed.¹⁹ It has been speculated that physical inactivity is closely related to dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, low bone mass, muscle weakness and atrophy, adiposity gain, increased blood pressure, low quality of life, and reduced self-esteem.¹⁹

Pediatric rheumatic patients have several clinical manifestations, such as fatigue, chronic pain, stiffness, synovitis and joint deformities, which predispose to a sedentary lifestyle.⁷ Thus, a dangerous vicious cycle is formed, with symptoms leading to physical inactivity, which in turn, worsens the patients' clinical findings. In that context, physical exercise becomes the only strategy capable of interrupting the cycle.⁷ Thus, physicians, nurses, and physical health professionals are strongly encouraged to recommend physical activity to patients with pediatric rheumatic diseases.

The same applies to parents who tend to overprotect their children with chronic diseases, isolating them from social contact, thus favoring, a sedentary lifestyle. Even in active diseases, studies in adults have shown that physical exercise, properly adapted to the patient, can be safe and effective.²⁰ There is no reason to believe it would be different in children. Undoubtedly, the benefits of physical activity compensate the deleterious effects of physical inactivity, and except for some conditions listed in Table 2, the patient with pediatric rheumatic disease should exercise.

EVIDENCE FOR PRESCRIBING EXERCISES TO PEDIATRIC RHEUMATIC PATIENTS

We describe the clinical manifestations and physical capacity deficits of patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), juvenile dermatomyositis (JDM), juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus (JSLE), juvenile fibromyalgia (JFM), and other causes of chronic idiopathic musculoskeletal pain, which constitute the theoretical reference for using physical exercise as a therapeutic agent in pediatric rheumatic diseases. The results of the clinical studies involving exercise in the above mentioned diseases will also be assessed.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis

There is evidence that patients with polyarticular, but not pauciarticular, JIA have a reduction in their aerobic and anaerobic exercise capacities.²¹ In addition, children with JIA have shown low isometric strength as compared with their healthy peers.²² The strength reduction often observed in JIA is believed to be related to the muscle atrophy findings, which in turn, are associated with the localized arthritis, the chronic use of glucocorticoids, and the lack of use of the joint. Takken et al.²³ have also reported a positive association between anaerobic capacity and muscle function in patients with JIA, suggesting that physical deconditioning affects daily life activities in this disease.

Studies involving physical exercise programs have produced satisfactory results in patients with JIA. In a recent review, Klepper¹⁵ has shown that the most important benefits reported were an increase in flexibility strength and an improvement in pain, joint stiffness, and quality of life. The physical training protocols varied in intensity (60%-70% of maximal HR), duration (30-60 minutes), frequency (one to three sessions per week), composition (strength training, aerobic training, flexibility, sports modalities or a combination of them), and follow-up (6-20 weeks). It is interesting to note that physical exercises in the water promote benefits similar to those performed on the ground.²⁴ Thus, high and low intensity programs seem to be equally effective and safe.²⁵ There is no report of adverse events due to physical training in patients with JIA; thus, physical exercise should be encouraged.

Juvenile-onset dermatomyositis

Patients with JDM frequently do not tolerate physical effort.^26,27 There are several factors that may explain this finding, such as increase in muscle concentrations of inflammatory cytokines, systemic inflammation, inflammation of the capillaries that irrigate the musculoskeletal system, hypoactivity, and chronic use of glucocorticoids, which are known to impair protein synthesis and increase body fat.²⁷ Furthermore, studies with magnetic resonance spectroscopy have shown bioenergetic abnormalities, such as a 35%-40% reduction in phosphorylcreatine intramuscular concentrations, in children with JDM.²⁸

As for adults with dermatomyositis, aerobic and strength training can increase muscle strength and function, aerobic conditioning, and lean mass in patients with both controlled and active disease.¹² Despite the therapeutic potential of exercise in JDM, controlled studies still lack.

Our group has recently shown that one child with chronic JDM responded to a supervised program combining strength and aerobic training similarly to her healthy homozygous twin sister.²⁹ In this study, the patient showed clinically significant improvements in dynamic and isometric strengths, in addition to an improvement in aerobic conditioning. Although the physical training could not completely solve the physical capacity deficiency, to our knowledge, this was the first evidence that regular exercise could be effective for and well tolerated by a child with JDM. It is certainly a promising intervention that requires further investigation.

Juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus

Patients with JSLE usually do not tolerate physical effort, and have muscle weakness and exacerbated fatigue as compared with their healthy peers.^7,30 In addition, obesity, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and low bone mass are prevailing characteristics of the disease.^7,31 Considering the wide range of action of physical exercise, one can speculate that it can improve strength, tolerance to effort, aerobic conditioning, body composition, and quality of life in patients with JSLE. Surprisingly, however, controlled studies confirming that possibility still lack.

Our group has investigated the effects of aerobic training in children and adolescents with JSLE. One of the patients stood out, because he was also diagnosed with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS, with deep venous thrombosis of the lower limb and vena cava thrombosis) secondary to JSLE and was on anticoagulation therapy with warfarin. This patient underwent an intensely supervised aerobic training for three months. A substantial benefit in aerobic conditioning was observed, with an increase in VO₂max, greater tolerance to effort, and better running economy. In addition, the patient's quality of life, functionality, and self-esteem also improved. Although bleeding resulting from trauma was a constant preoccupation during the training, it is worth noting that no adverse effect was observed. A prospective study of a significant population with JSLE is being conducted.

Juvenile-onset fibromyalgia and other causes of chronic idiopathic musculoskeletal pain

Patients with JFM may have diffuse chronic pain, sleep disorders, chronic anxiety, tension, headache, fatigue, and poor quality of life.^32,33 Similarly, one might speculate that a regular physical training program can improve muscle function, pain, sleep quality, and quality of life of patients with JFM.

To our knowledge, only one study has been conducted with these patients. Stephens et al.³⁴ have investigated the efficacy and feasibility of a physical training program in children and adolescents with JFM for 12 weeks. Patients were randomized to a high- or low-intensity aerobic training program. Both groups showed an improvement in muscle function, disease symptoms, quality of life, and pain, although patients undergoing the more intense training experienced gains in a higher number of clinical parameters. These findings confirm the benefits expected from physical training in JFM and stress the need for new studies in this area.

Hypothetically, physical training might also be therapeutic in other causes of chronic, non-inflammatory, idiopathic musculoskeletal pain. One example is the pain related to the prolonged use of computers and video games, known in adults as repetitive strain injury (RSI) or work-related osteomuscular disorder (WROD). With the appearance of informatization, children and adolescents have spent more and more time in front of technological devices; consequently, they become physically inactive individuals more prone to chronic pain, tendinitis, and myofascial syndrome.³³ The regular practice of physical activity, muscle strengthening and joint flexibility enhancement could at least relieve these symptoms.

Another possible cause of musculoskeletal pain is joint hypermobility (JH). The association of JH with pain and/ or musculoskeletal system lesions constitutes the benign joint hypermobility syndrome (BJHS), which is not related to congenital entities, such as Marfan and Ehlers-Danlos syndromes. Our group carried out a study in a school in the city of São Paulo, and found a BJHS prevalence of 10% among adolescents.³² Several studies,^35-38 although not all,³⁹ have suggested that patients with BJHS may have lower levels of physical activity and of tolerance to effort, muscle weakness, neuromuscular disorders, and delayed motor development as compared with their healthy peers. Recent evidence^40,41 has indicated that the combination of dynamic and isometric strength exercises promotes gains in proprioception, strength, balance, muscle function, reduces pain, and improves the quality of life of patients with BJHS. These data suggest that the practice of physical activity can be of great help for these patients. Nevertheless, controlled studies with larger populations are necessary to confirm these initial findings.

PERSPECTIVES AND FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

Over the past decades, the survival rate and the prognosis of patients with pediatric rheumatic diseases have markedly improved. However, the concern about short-, medium-, and long-term adverse events, due to pharmacological treatment or disease itself and that affect negatively the patients' physical capacity and quality of life, has increased.^31,42,43 Considering the enormous therapeutic potential of physical exercise for the treatment of those diseases, the limited number of studies about it is worth noting. Thus, several hypotheses require further investigation.

Firstly, randomized clinical trials are clearly required to assess the therapeutic effects of exercise in all pediatric rheumatic diseases, including solid outcomes, such as quality of life and long follow-ups (over one year). In addition, it is worth noting that the presence of a control group is paramount. The unstable natural course of many pediatric rheumatic diseases, in addition to changes in body composition and physical capacity characteristic of the process of sexual maturation at puberty, might lead to mistakes in data interpretation.

It is highly unlikely that one single type of exercise promotes the highest benefits to all pediatric rheumatic patients. Based on the adult rheumatic literature, high-intensity strength training is known to result in greater gains in strength and lean mass in patients with inflammatory idiopathic myopathies,¹² while low-intensity aerobic training produces better clinical results in patients with fibromyalgia.⁴⁴ Empirically, isometric rather than dynamic training has been recommended aiming at preventing joint injury. However, that recommendation is not scientifically supported. In fact, the latter could even be better than the former regarding functional performance in daily life activities. Thus, the ideal training types for pediatric rheumatic diseases should be sought, considering the clinical manifestations and functional limitations inherent in each one.

Finally, as emphasized in a recent review,⁴⁵ regular physical training can attenuate systemic inflammation in chronic diseases. The possible anti-inflammatory effects of exercise could be extremely useful in pediatric rheumatic diseases, possibly reducing the number and/or doses of immunosuppressant drugs.

Despite the limitations found in the literature, there is already sufficient body of knowledge to consider physical exercise as a therapeutic agent in chronic rheumatic diseases. Clinically, understanding the exercise science is fundamental for the pediatric rheumatologist, who can count on a valuable therapeutic tool. Regarding scientific research, a new and promising investigation field is about to be explored.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - FAPESP (Grant 2010/51428-2 to HR), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq (Grant 300248/2008-3 to CAS) and Federico Foundation (to CAS).

REFERENCES

• ¹
  Katzmarzyk PT, Janssen I. The economic costs associated with physical inactivity and obesity in Canada: an update. Can J Appl Physiol 2004;29(1):90-115.
• ²
  Gregg EW, Pereira MA, Caspersen CJ. Physical activity, falls, and fractures among older adults: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000;48(8):883-93.
• ³
  Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN, Brewer HB, Jr., Clark LT, Hunninghake DB et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Circulation 2004;110(2):227-39.
• ⁴
  Lautenschlager NT, Almeida OP. Physical activity and cognition in old age. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2006;19(2):190-3.
• ⁵
  Manini TM, Everhart JE, Patel KV, Schoeller DA, Colbert LH, Visser M et al. Daily activity energy expenditure and mortality among older adults. JAMA 2006;296(2):171-9.
• ⁶
  Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Bredin SS. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ 2006;174(6):801-9.
• ⁷
  Gualano B, Sá Pinto AL, Perondi B, Leite Prado DM, Omori C, Almeida RT et al. Evidence for prescribing exercise as treatment in pediatric rheumatic diseases. Autoimmun Rev 2010;9(8):569-73.
• ⁸
  Guadalupe-Grau A, Fuentes T, Guerra B, Calbet JA. Exercise and bone mass in adults. Sports Med 2009;39(6):439-68.
• ⁹
  Zhang W, Nuki G, Moskowitz RW, Abramson S, Altman RD, Arden NK et al. OARSI recommendations for the management of hip and knee osteoarthritis: part III: Changes in evidence following systematic cumulative update of research published through January 2009. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2010;18(4):476-99.
• ¹⁰
  Ayán C, Martín V. Systemic lupus erythematosus and exercise. Lupus 2007;16(1):5-9.
• ¹¹
  Pinto AL, Oliveira NC, Gualano B, Christmann RB, Painelli VS, Artioli GG et al. Efficacy and safety of concurrent training in systemic sclerosis. J Strength Cond Res 2011;25(5):1423-8.
• ¹²
  de Salles Painelli V, Gualano B, Artioli GG, de Sá Pinto AL, Bonfá E, Lancha Junior AH et al. The possible role of physical exercise on the treatment of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Autoimmun Rev 2009;8(5):355-9.
• ¹³
  Busch AJ, Schachter CL, Overend TJ, Peloso PM, Barber KA. Exercise for fibromyalgia: a systematic review. J Rheumatol 2008;35(6):1130-44.
• ¹⁴
  Long AR, Rouster-Stevens KA. The role of exercise therapy in the management of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2010;22(2):213-7.
• ¹⁵
  Klepper SE. Exercise in pediatric rheumatic diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2008;20(5):619-24.
• ¹⁶
  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Historical background, terminology, evolution of recommendations, and measurement. Chap. 2. In: Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996; p.20-1.
• ¹⁷
  Morris PJ. Physical activity recommendations for children and adolescents with chronic disease. Curr Sports Med Rep 2008;7(6):353-8.
• ¹⁸
  Buljina AI, Taljanovic MS, Avdic DM, Hunter TB. Physical and exercise therapy for treatment of the rheumatoid hand. Arthritis Rheum 2001;45(4):392-7.
• ¹⁹
  Hardy LL, Dobbins TA, Denney-Wilson EA, Okely AD, Booth ML. Sedentariness, small-screen recreation, and fitness in youth. Am J Prev Med 2009;36(2):120-5.
• ²⁰
  Alexanderson H, Stenström CH, Jenner G, Lundberg I. The safety of a resistive home exercise program in patients with recent onset active polymyositis or dermatomyositis. Scand J Rheumatol 2000;29(5):295-301.
• ²¹
  van Brussel M, Lelieveld OT, van der Net J, Engelbert RH, Helders PJ, Takken T. Aerobic and anaerobic exercise capacity in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2007;57(6):891-7.
• ²²
  Giannini MJ, Protas EJ. Comparison of peak isometric knee extensor torque in children with and without juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Care Res 1993;6(2):82-8.
• ²³
  Takken T, van der Net J, Helders PJ. Relationship between functional ability and physical fitness in juvenile idiopathic arthritis patients. Scand J Rheumatol 2003;32(3):174-8.
• ²⁴
  Epps H, Ginnelly L, Utley M, Southwood T, Gallivan S, Sculpher M et al. Is hydrotherapy cost-effective? A randomised controlled trial of combined hydrotherapy programmes compared with physiotherapy land techniques in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Health Technol Assess 2005;9(39):iii-iv, ix-x, 1-59.
• ²⁵
  Singh-Grewal D, Schneiderman-Walker J, Wright V, Bar-Or O, Beyene J, Selvadurai H et al. The effects of vigorous exercise training on physical function in children with arthritis: a randomized, controlled, single-blinded trial. Arthritis Rheum 2007;57(7):1202-10.
• ²⁶
  Takken T, Elst E, Spermon N, Helders PJ, Prakken AB, van der Net J. The physiological and physical determinants of functional ability measures in children with juvenile dermatomyositis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003;42(4):591-5.
• ²⁷
  Takken T, van der Net J, Helders PJ. Anaerobic exercise capacity in patients with juvenile-onset idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. Arthritis Rheum 2005;53(2):173-7.
• ²⁸
  Park JH, Niermann KJ, Ryder NM, Nelson AE, Das A, Lawton AR et al. Muscle abnormalities in juvenile dermatomyositis patients: P-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies. Arthritis Rheum 2000;43(10):2359-67.
• ²⁹
  Omori C, Prado DM, Gualano B, Sallum AM, Sá-Pinto AL, Roschel H et al. Responsiveness to exercise training in juvenile dermatomyositis: a twin case study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2010;11:270.
• ³⁰
  Houghton KM, Tucker LB, Potts JE, McKenzie DC. Fitness, fatigue, disease activity, and quality of life in pediatric lupus. Arthritis Rheum 2008;59(4):537-45.
• ³¹
  Avcin T, Cimaz R, Silverman ED, Cervera R, Gattorno M, Garay S et al. Pediatric antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical and immunologic features of 121 patients in an international registry. Pediatrics 2008;122(5):e1100-7.
• ³²
  Zapata AL, Moraes AJ, Leone C, Doria-Filho U, Silva CA. Pain and musculoskeletal pain syndromes in adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2006;38(6):769-71.
• ³³
  Zapata AL, Moraes AJ, Leone C, Doria-Filho U, Silva CA. Pain and musculoskeletal pain syndromes related to computer and video game use in adolescents. Eur J Pediatr 2006;165(6):408-14.
• ³⁴
  Stephens S, Feldman BM, Bradley N, Schneiderman J, Wright V, Singh-Grewal D, et al. Feasibility and effectiveness of an aerobic exercise program in children with fibromyalgia: results of a randomized controlled pilot trial. Arthritis Rheum 2008;59(10):1399-406.
• ³⁵
  Engelbert RH, van Bergen M, Henneken T, Helders PJ, Takken T. Exercise tolerance in children and adolescents with musculoskeletal pain in joint hypermobility and joint hypomobility syndrome. Pediatrics 2006;118(3):e690-6.
• ³⁶
  Adib N, Davies K, Grahame R, Woo P, Murray KJ. Joint hypermobility syndrome in childhood. A not so benign multisystem disorder? Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005;44(6):744-50.
• ³⁷
  Kirby A, Davies R. Developmental Coordination Disorder and Joint Hypermobility Syndrome - overlapping disorders? Implications for research and clinical practice. Child Care Health Dev 2007;33(5):513-9.
• ³⁸
  Sahin N, Baskent A, Ugurlu H, Berker E. Isokinetic evaluation of knee extensor/flexor muscle strength in patients with hypermobility syndrome. Rheumatol Int 2008;28(7):643-8.
• ³⁹
  Juul-Kristensen B, Kristensen JH, Frausing B, Jensen DV, Røgind H, Remvig L. Motor competence and physical activity in 8-year-old school children with generalized joint hypermobility. Pediatrics 2009;124(5):1380-7.
• ⁴⁰
  Ferrell WR, Tennant N, Sturrock RD, Ashton L, Creed G, Brydson G et al. Amelioration of symptoms by enhancement of proprioception in patients with joint hypermobility syndrome. Arthritis Rheum 2004;50(10):3323-8.
• ⁴¹
  Sahin N, Baskent A, Cakmak A, Salli A, Ugurlu H, Berker E. Evaluation of knee proprioception and effects of proprioception exercise in patients with benign joint hypermobility syndrome. Rheumatol Int 2008;28(10):995-1000.
• ⁴²
  Kuczynski E, Silva CA, Cristófani LM, Kiss MH, Odone Filho V, Assumpção Jr. FB. Quality of life evaluation in children and adolescents with chronic and/or incapacitating diseases: a Brazilian study. An Pediatr (Barc) 2003;58(6):550-5.
• ⁴³
  Ruperto N, Lovell DJ, Quartier P, Paz E, Rubio-Pérez N, Silva CA et al, Paediatric Rheumatology International Trials Organization, Pediatric Rheumatology Collaborative Study Group. Abatacept in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled withdrawal trial. Lancet 2008;372(9636):383-91.
• ⁴⁴
  Häuser W, Klose P, Langhorst J, Moradi B, Steinbach M, Schiltenwolf M et al Efficacy of different types of aerobic exercise in fibromyalgia syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Arthritis Res Ther 2010;12(3):R79.
• ⁴⁵
  Mathur N, Pedersen BK. Exercise as a mean to control low-grade systemic inflammation. Mediators Inflamm 2008;2008:109502.
• ⁴⁶
  Rice SG, American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Medical conditions affecting sports participation. Pediatrics 2008;121(4):841-8.
• ⁴⁷
  Garrick JG. Preparticipation orthopedic screening evaluation. Clin J Sport Med 2004;14(3):123-6.

Therapeutic effects of exercise training in patients with pediatric rheumatic diseases

Bruno Gualano^I; Ana Lúcia de Sá Pinto^II; Maria Beatriz Perondi^III; Hamilton Roschel^IV; Adriana Maluf Elias Sallum^V; Ana Paula Tanaka Hayashi^VI; Marina Yazigi Solis^VI; Clóvis Artur Silva^VII

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  07 Oct 2011
• Date of issue
  Oct 2011

History

• Received
  18 Jan 2011
• Accepted
  01 July 2011